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ALDINE 
LANGUAGE METHOD 
PART THREE 

A Manual for Teachers Using 
Third Language Book 



BY 

FRANK E. SPAULDING 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO 

CATHERINE T. BRYCE 

ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO 

HUBER GRAY BUEHLER 

HEADMASTER OF THE HOTCHKISS SCHOOL, LAKEVILLE, CONNECTICUT 



NEW YORK 

NEWSON & COMPANY 



i£ v 






Copyright, igi7, by 
Newson and Company. 



All rights reserved. 
[x] 



W-i2 

NOV 24 1317 
©CI :97 

\ I 0- I 



CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTORY NOTES AND GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

PAGE 

The Purpose of the Book i 

Purpose in Every Exercise 2 

The Atmosphere of the Room 2 

Order of Procedure 3 

Reviews 4 

Preserving Samples of Pupils' Work 4 

Magazines and Newspapers 5 

Relation of Language Study to Other School Subjects .... 7 

Grammar 7 

Treatment of Formal Errors 11 



CHAPTER ONE 

Stories 

SECTION 

I. Three Tests of a Good Story 14 

II. The Beginning or Introduction of a Story . . . .15 

III. Making Stories from Introductions 17 

IV. Selecting Good Introductions 18 

V. Movement in Stories 20 

VI. Making Prose Versions of Poems Full of Action . . .20 

VII. Judging Stories 22 

VIII. The End of a Story 23 

IX. Good Story Endings 23 

X. Writing a Story to Fit an Ending 23 

XL Writing a Story in Parts 24 

XII. Telling a Story 24 

Hi 



iv CONTENTS 



CHAPTER TWO 

Subject; Predicate; Substantive; Verb 

SECTION PAGE 

I. The Meaning and Use of Grammar 26 

II. Subject and Predicate 26 

III. Sentences and Not Sentences 28 

Supplementary Work 29 

IV. Marking the Beginning and End of Sentences . . .30 
V. Studying Declarative, Interrogative, and Explanatory Sentences 30 

VI. Making Sentences 31 

VII. Position of the Subject 31 

VIII. The Subject Substantive 32 

IX. Studying Sentences for Subject Substantive . . : -33 

X. The Verb 34 

XI. Studying Sentences for Subject Substantive and Verb . . 34 

Supplementary Work 36 

XII. Compound Subjects 38 

XIII. Compound Predicates 38 

XIV. Use of Compound Subjects and Predicates . . . .38 



CHAPTER THREE 

Topics; Paragraphs; Outlines 

I. What a Topic Is 39 

II. What a Paragraph Is 41 

III. Studying Paragraphs for Topics 41 

IV. Outlines 41 

V. Description from Outlines 42 

VI. Noting Change in Topics 43 

VII. The Topic Sentence 44 

VIII. Newspaper Topic Sentences 44 

IX. Making Topic Sentences 44 

X. How Paragraphs Grow 45 

XI. Analyzing Paragraphs for Ways of Growth . . . -45 

XII. Writing an Outline of a Paragraph 45 

XIII. Planning Paragraphs 46 

XIV. Paragraph Talks 46 

XV. The Beginning, Middle, and End of a Paragraph . . .47 



CONTENTS 



SECTION 

XVI. Making Paragraphs from Topic Sentences 
XVII. Writing a Paragraph from a Topic Sentence 

XVIII. Connecting Paragraphs 
XIX, XX, XXI. The Conversation Paragraph 
XXII. Writing a Letter in Paragraphs 

XXIII. Comparing the Paragraph and the Stanza 



PAGE 

• 47 

• 47 
. 47 
. 48 
. 48 
. 48 



CHAPTER FOUR 

Nouns and Pronouns; Nominative Case; Number 
and Person; Agreement of Verbs; Gender; 
Agreement of Pronouns 

Purpose of the Chapter 50 

I. Nouns Common and Proper 51 

II. Studying Sentences for Nouns 51 

Supplementary Work 51 

III. Pronouns 54 

IV. Personal Pronouns 54 

V. Case 55 

VI. Right and Wrong in Language 56 

VII. Pronouns as Subjects . 57 

VIII. Pronouns in Compound Subjects 57 

Important Note 58 

Drill Cards • . .59 

IX. Singular and Plural Nouns and Pronouns . . . .60 

X. Formation of Plural Nouns 60 

XL Dictation Exercises : Singular and Plural Nouns . . .60 

Note on the Possessive 61 

XII. Singular and Plural Verbs 62 

XIII. Changes in Verbs for Number and Person . . . .62 

XIV. Agreement of Verb with Its Subject 63 

XV. Contracted Forms 64 

XVI. Agreement of Verb with Compound Subject . . .64 

XVII. Gender 64 

XVIII. Agreement of Pronouns in Gender 65 

XIX. Gender in Personification 65 

XX. Agreement of Pronouns in Number 66 

XXL Ambiguous Pronouns 67 



VI 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER FIVE 



Letter Writing 



PAGE 

68 



CHAPTER SLX 

Modifiers; Adjectives; Adverbs 

Purpose of the Chapter 70 

I. Apposition 70 

II. What a Modifier Is 71 

III. Studying Sentences for Modifiers 72 

IV. Using Modifiers 72 

V. Position of Modifiers 74 

VI. Adjectives 74 

Supplementary Work 75 

VII. Articles 79 

VIII. Singular and Plural Adjectives . . . . -79 

IX. Adverbs 80 

X. The Form of Adverbs 80 

Supplementary Work 81 

XI. Comparative and Superlative 83 

XII. Forming the Comparative and Superlative . . . .83 

XIII. Using the Comparative and the Superlative . . . .84 

XIV. Kipling on "Elegant" Scenery 85 

XV. Overworked Adjectives 85 

XVI. More Adjectives Often Misused 85 

XVII. Some Adjectives and Adverbs Often Confounded . . .85 
XVIII. Double Negatives 85 



CHAPTER SEVEN 

The Choice of Words 

I. Importance of a Large Vocabulary 87 

II. Synonyms 88 

III. Finding Synonyms 88 

IV. Using the Most Appropriate Word 89 

V. Words of Special Association 8q 

VI. Words Denoting Different Degrees . . . . 89 



CONTENTS 



Vll 



SECTION 

VII. Antonyms 

VIII. Studying Sentences for Antonyms 

IX. Finding Antonyms 

X. Words Whose Sounds Suggest Their Meaning 

XI. Studying Selections for Fitting Words . 

XII. Studying Selections for Words Arousing Feeling 

XIII. Thinking of the Right Word 

XIV. The Game of Tracking Words . 

XV. Some Common Synonyms and Antonyms 



90 
90 
91 
91 
92 
92 
92 
92 
93 



CHAPTER EIGHT 

Verbs 

I. Verb Phrases 94 

II. Transitive Verbs 94 

III. Studying Sentences for Direct Objects .... 96 

W. Using Pronouns as Direct Objects 96 

V. Indirect Objects 98 

VI. Using Pronouns as Indirect Objects 98 

VII. Intransitive Verbs 99 

VIII. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Often Confounded . . 100 

IX. Linking Verbs 100 

X. Predicate Nouns and Pronouns 101 

XI. Predicate Adjectives 102 

XII. Choosing between Predicate Adjective and Adverb . . 103 

XIII. Participles 103 

Supplementary Work 104 

XrV. Using Participles 107 

Supplementary Work 108 

XV. Infinitive and Gerunds 109 

Note on the Infinitive no 

XVI. Tenses in 

XVII. The Perfect Tenses 112 

XVIII. Progressive and Emphatic Tenses . . . . v .113 

Supplementary Work 114 

XrX. Regular and Irregular Verbs 115 

XX. Learning Principal Parts 115 

XXI. Using Tenses 117 

XXII. Shall or Will 118 



viii CONTENTS 

SECTION PAGE 

XXIII. Voice 118 

Supplementary Work 118 

XXIV. Misused Verbs 119 

Note on Mood 120 



CHAPTER NINE 

Description 

I. Importance of Description 122 

II. Kinds of Descriptions 124 

III. Choosing an Object for Description 124 

IV. Describing a Familiar Object 125 

V. Describing a Bird 126 

VI. Describing a Flower 126 

VII. Describing a School 126 

VIII. The Viewpoint 126 

DC. The Mind's Viewpoint 127 

X. Studying Descriptions for Feeling 127 

XI. Writing Descriptions with Feeling 127 

XII. Different Viewpoints 127 

XIII. Subjects for Description 127 

XIV. Descriptions in a Story 127 

XV. Description by Comparisons 128 

CHAPTER TEN 

Phrases; Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections; Clauses 

I. What a Phrase Is 129 

II. Adjective and Adverbial Phrases 129 

III. Using Phrases 130 

Supplementary Work 131 

IV. Prepositions 132 

V. Studying Sentences for Prepositions 134 

Supplementary Work 135 

VI. Pronouns with Prepositions 135 

VII. Conjunctions 136 

Supplementary Work 137 

VIII. Correlatives • *37 



CONTENTS ix 

SECTION PAGE 

IX. Interjections 137 

X. Summary of the Parts of Speech 138 

XI. What a Clause Is 138 

XII. Using Clauses 139 

XIII. Studying Sentences for Clauses 141 

Supplementary Work 141 

Note on Substantive Clauses 142 

XIV. Misused Prepositions 143 



CHAPTER ELEVEN 

Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences: Relative Pronouns 

I. Simple Sentences Defined ....... 144 

II. Simple Sentences as Topic Sentences 146 

III. Simple Sentences for Quick or Excited Action . . . 147 

IV. Simple Interrogative Sentences to Denote Suspense . . 148 
V. Compound Sentences Defined 148 

VI. The Use of Compound Sentences 149 

VII. Conjunctions in Compound Sentences 149 

VIII. Making Compound Sentences 150 

LX. Omitting Conjunctions in Compound Sentences . . .151 

X. Complex Sentences Defined 151 

XI. Conjunctions in Complex Sentences 152 

XII. Relative Pronouns .153 

XIII. Making Complex Sentences 154 

XIV. True and Accurate Sentences 154 

XV. Pleasing Sentences 155 

XVI. Sentences to be Rewritten 156 

CHAPTER TWELVE 

Narration 

I. Meaning of Narration 157 

II. Making a Narrative Clear 157 

III. Story of a Personal Experience 158 

IV. Making a Narrative Forceful 159 

V. A Narrative from History 159 

VI. The Use of Direct Quotations in Narration . . . .159 



x CONTENTS 

SECTION PAGE 

VII. A Narrative with Direct Quotations 160 

VIII. Making the Story Move 160 

IX. Studying Narratives for Movement 160 

X. A Narrative with Movement 160 

XI. Holding Interest through Suspense 161 

XII. Narrative with Suspense 162 

XIII. Studying a Narrative Poem 162 

XIV. A Narrative with Sentiment 162 

XV. Keeping a Journal 163 

XVI. Stories from Suggestive Beginnings 163 

VIII. Writing Myths from Suggestive Outlines . . . .163 

XVIII. Writing Myths from Quotations 164 

XIX. Writing Myths from Titles 165 

XX. Fables 165 

A Study of Fables 166 

XXI. Proverbs Growing Out of Fables 169 

XXII. Writing a Fable from a Proverb 169 

XXIII. Writing Fables to Fit Proverbs 169 

XXIV. Writing Stories of the Origin of Fables . . . .169 

CHAPTER THIRTEEN 

How to Make Sentences Forceful 

I. Force through Added Details 171 

II. Force through Climax .171 

III. Force through Repetition of Words 171 

IV. Force through Easy Questions . . . ' . .172 
V. Force through Exclamations 172 

VI. Force through Brevity 172 

VII. Force through Contrast 172 

VIII. Studying Sentences for Force 173 



CHAPTER FOURTEEN 

Exposition and Argument 

I. Meaning of Exposition 1 74 

II. Studying an Exposition 174 

III. Oral Expositions .176 

IV. Written Expositions 177 



CONTENTS 



XI 



SECTION 

V. Oral Exposition from Given Introductions 
VI. Written Exposition from Given Introductions 
VII. Meaning of Argumentation 
VIII. Arguments Suggested by a Story- 
DC. Oral Arguments 
X. Written Arguments 
XI. Making Original Addresses 



PAGE 

177 
178 
178 
178 
179 
180 
180 



CHAPTER FIFTEEN 
Summary of Rules for Punctuation and Capitals 



181 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 
Part Three 

INTRODUCTORY NOTES AND GENERAL SUGGES- 
TIONS 

The pupil's book is a guide to the teacher as well as 
to the pupil. Yet some suggestions to the teacher 
concerning the use of the book as a whole, the 
treatment of certain exercises, and the providing of 
practical supplementary work may be of assistance. 

THE PURPOSE OF THE BOOK 

The purpose of the book is to help pupils to think, 
and to arrange and express their thoughts effectively, 
both in speech and in writing. Pupils learn to think 
by thinking ; but they will really think only when they 
have something to think about, something that in- 
terests them. Pupils learn to express themselves 
through language only by much practice in so express- 
ing themselves; but practice that gives real power 
must be natural, must grow out of the pupil's desire 
to express himself. It follows, then, that favorable 



2 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

conditions for the pupil's thinking and expression must 
be provided. 

PURPOSE IN EVERY EXERCISE 

Something to think about, not something merely 
to make sentences about; a definite purpose for 
thinking ; a definite purpose in expressing one's thought, 
are primary essentials of progress in learning the use 
of language. These essentials are provided in every 
exercise of the pupil's book. It is the teacher's privi- 
lege to see that every exercise is carried out pur- 
posefully. 

THE ATMOSPHERE OF THE ROOM 

Pupils will think and express their own thoughts only 
in an atmosphere of freedom and sympathetic appre- 
ciation, an atmosphere that respects and encourages 
individuality, originality, and initiative, an atmosphere 
in which joyful earnestness prevails, an atmosphere 
of achievement. Such an atmosphere may be secured 
in any schoolroom. It is made by teachers and pupils ; 
neither can make it alone. Pupils can help, will gladly 
help if given the opportunity, but the teacher must take 
the initiative. The teacher must adapt herself to her 
pupils, see things from her pupils' point of view, share 
her pupils' feelings and ambitions, in a word, learn to 
think and feel with her pupils. In such an atmos- 
phere pupils develop self-confidence, independence, 
originality in thought and expression. Such an at- 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 3 

mosphere is equally favorable to thought, originality, 
and growth on the part of the teacher. 

The "socialized recitation" thrives in this atmos- 
phere ; indeed, this is the only type of recitation that 
is fully in harmony with it. Under the conditions 
which should prevail, pupils talk and write because 
they have something to say that they want other 
pupils and the teacher to hear or to read. They express 
their own thoughts and feelings instead of parroting 
ideas that every one in the room knows already and 
that each may parrot in turn. Relationship of teacher 
and pupils is practical and natural ; they are real 
speakers and listeners, audience and speaker, writers 
and readers, in turn. 

ORDER OF PROCEDURE 

Each chapter is a unit treating various phases of a 
single subject. Each section of each chapter is also 
a unit, treating a single phase of the chapter subject. 
As a rule, the sections are closely connected, each one 
preparing for those that follow. This arrangement 
calls for orderly study by chapters and sections. It 
does not, however, necessitate the study of chapters 
strictly in the order presented, though deviation from 
this order ought not to be made without substantial 
reason. Nor does the arrangement preclude the alter- 
nation of lessons in the language chapters with lessons 
in the grammar chapters; indeed, this may often be 



4 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

found the preferable plan. While every chapter is a 
study in the use of language, the even-numbered 
chapters up to ten inclusive deal especially with the 
grammatical aspects of language. 

REVIEWS 

The book is a guide to practice, not a repository of 
facts, rules, and definitions to be committed to memory. 
The practice provided involves the repeated, the almost 
daily application of every rule and definition. Hence, 
reviews are continuous, not special exercises character- 
izing dread days of reckoning. Pupils should be 
taught the use of their books for reference. They 
should form the habit of using the index. For a 
method of conducting frequent oral reviews of certain 
exercises, see page 59 of this Manual. 

PRESERVING SAMPLES OF PUPILS' WORK 

Far more valuable and significant than formal tests 
are samples of pupils' best work, taken at frequent 
intervals, and preserved. Each pupil should be en- 
couraged or required to keep samples of his work, made 
readily accessible by some orderly arrangement in a 
folio or envelope. Samples of classwork in which 
every pupil is represented at his best should be care- 
fully preserved by the teacher. These samples will 
be suggestive and stimulating to succeeding classes, 
or they will reveal to the teacher receiving their 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 5 

authors in the next higher grade, the standard of 
work that may be expected of these pupils. 

MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPERS 

The great bulk of current literature appears in 
magazines and newspapers. These are likely to 
furnish most of the reading matter to which nearly 
all pupils will devote their attention. This is ample 
reason for making good newspapers and magazines 
the subject of critical classroom study. There is also 
another reason, even more pertinent, for the study of 
magazines and newspapers in connection with the 
study of language. They daily present fresh, vivid ex- 
amples of all types of expression — narration, descrip- 
tion, exposition, and argumentation, only they never 
bear these labels; they are made up of editorials, 
news items, short stories, letters, poems, jokes, 
sporting news, obituaries, and advertisements of all 
kinds. 

The analysis and study of the contents of a good 
newspaper and magazine will do much to impress upon 
pupils the living reality of written language, its practi- 
cality and the wonderful variety and extent of its daily 
use. Such study may be made to illustrate and reen- 
force most effectively the lessons of the textbook. 
Whatever the faults of "newspaper English," it must 
attract and hold attention, it must be interesting, or 
it will not be read. 

After the study of a newspaper or magazine to find 



6 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

what it contains, the purpose and characteristics of the 
various types of writing, let pupils organize for the 
production of a newspaper or magazine. This is 
always an attractive project, enlisting pupils' best 
efforts ; it furnishes a practical motive for their efforts. 
It also furnishes such wide variety of opportunity that 
every one can make contribution in accordance with 
his interest and especial ability. The boy that has 
never shone as the author of myths and fairy 
stories may prove to be the best writer of sporting 
news. 

A somewhat complete organization for the produc- 
tion of a newspaper will, of course, include editors 
and assistant editors, a chief editor and department 
editors, reporters and contributors, advertising writers, 
and a business manager and assistants. The planning 
and cooperation required is most practical and highly 
educational. 

It is entirely practical to produce any number of 
copies of a school publication either with a mimeo- 
graph, or better, with a sufficiently large printing 
outfit. Grammar and junior high schools, in rapidly 
growing numbers, are issuing school publications regu- 
larly that are entirely the work of pupils, under the 
general guidance of teachers, of course. Seeing their 
writing in print is of inestimable value to pupils ; it 
makes literature a real, everyday matter ; it calls forth 
pupils' best efforts; it may open for many a pupil 
just the career for which he is best adapted. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 7 

RELATION OF LANGUAGE STUDY TO OTHER SCHOOL 

SUBJECTS 

In life the use of language is not isolated ; in school 
the study of language must not be isolated. Reading 
and language are two aspects of the same thing — 
the expression of thought. Many of the lessons of 
this book are lessons in reading quite as much as 
in language. The intimate relations between draw- 
ing and language as mediums of thought expression 
are obvious, and should be recognized in teaching. 
Let pupils form the habit of supplementing their 
written work with appropriate illustrations. Fre- 
quent suggestions are made in the pupil's book, and 
especially in the notes to the teacher that follow, for 
correlating the study of language with reading, geog- 
raphy, history, and even with arithmetic and hand- 
work. 

GRAMMAR 

Grammar treats of the fundamental structure of 
sentences, the significance of different forms of the 
same word, and the simple rules that all good 
speakers and writers follow in framing sentences. 
The reasons for teaching these things to boys and girls 
are plain and decisive. 

It is true that grammar has often been taught un- 
wisely or too much. Grammatical analysis has fre- 
quently been pushed very far, as if it were an end in 
itself; and time and energy have often been wasted 



8 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

on details of no value to a pupil not studying a foreign 
language. It is also true that the most thorough knowl- 
edge of grammar does not of itself cure incorrect habits 
of expression that have already been formed. But it 
is equally true that the blind, parrot-like repetition of 
correct forms of expression, without knowing why they 
are correct, is entirely insufficient. Some knowledge of 
grammatical principles is essential; and it would be 
absurd to conclude that because grammar has often 
been taught foolishly and wastefully, it should there- 
fore not be taught at all ! 

The reasons for including the essentials of grammar 
in the public school course of study are both cultural 
and practical. The cultural reasons spring from the 
transcendent importance of language. It is one of the 
most interesting and important things in human life. 
No electrical invention is comparable with it in wonder 
and usefulness. Nothing is more vital to success than 
the way in which we use it. Many a man's rise in 
business has been due to his ability to talk and write 
well ; and one of the surest ways to measure a woman's 
personality and culture is to listen to her conversation. 
The basis of all language is the sentence ; and an ac- 
count of the structure of the sentence constitutes gram- 
mar. Surely some knowledge of the forms and rela- 
tions of words when used in sentences is an essential part 
of common school education. How can we excuse our- 
selves if we teach children the laws of electricity and 
plant growth, but leave them ignorant of the fundamen- 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 9 

tal principles of that most useful of all marvels, language, 
which is always with them during their waking hours ? 

The practical reasons for including the essentials of 
grammar in our public school course of study spring 
from our distinguishing a right and a wrong in language. 
As long as we tell boys and girls that they must say 
"He and I saw it," not "Him and me seen it," so long 
must we be ready to explain why the first sentence is 
right and the other wrong. But we cannot explain 
this without teaching grammar. The use of good 
English is, indeed, a habit which is developed by prac- 
tice ; but some knowledge of grammar is necessary to 
guide the practice. We have already said that a 
knowledge of grammar does not of itself prevent or 
cure common errors; but on the other hand, such 
errors cannot be surely recognized and avoided 
without knowing the essentials of grammar. Mere 
imitation and practice, without understanding the 
reasons underlying right and wrong in language, 
is appropriate for young children. It is not enough 
for intelligent boys and girls who will soon leave 
school and no longer have their teacher to point out 
errors. The habit of correct usage must become an 
intelligent usage, so that boys and girls may become 
self -directive. This requires accurate and systematic 
knowledge of grammatical principles and forms, tested 
and fixed in mind by carefully framed exercises. 

The mistaken notion, occasionally met with, that 
grammar might be omitted from the language course 



io ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

in schools probably arises from failure to discriminate 
between the essentials of grammar, which should be 
taught to all boys and girls, and those minute details 
which are useful only in the study of a foreign language. 
When there is any objection at all to the presence of 
grammar in the course of study, it is because the sub- 
ject is considered only in its formal aspect. (For the 
details which a pupil should have as a foundation for 
the study of another language, see A Modern Eng- 
lish Grammar, Revised.) i 
Every grammatical concept presented in this book 
has direct practical value to a boy or girl who wishes 
to use sentences intelligently and correctly. The 
terminology used is that approved by the National 
Education Association. The principles and defini- 
tions are presented inductively with all possible clear- 
ness, by easy and interesting steps, and are swiftly 
followed by carefully graded practical exercises, which 
apply the principles and lead to correct language 
habits. The topics are arranged in the order of prac- 
tical usefulness. For example, singular and plural 
nouns and pronouns are quickly followed by singular 
and plural verbs, and the rule of agreement ; the gender 
of nouns is followed immediately by the gender of 
pronouns ; phrases and prepositions are brought to- 
gether in the same chapter ; and relative pronouns 
are taught in connection with complex sentences. 
Everywhere there is direct and immediate application 
to the actual language used by the pupils. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD II 

TREATMENT OF FORMAL ERRORS 

Formal errors in speech and writing must not be 
permitted to monopolize the attention of teacher and 
pupils. It is one purpose of this book, and it should be 
one purpose of the teacher, to help pupils to express 
their thoughts in conventionally correct language. 
But this purpose will be achieved far more effectively 
by directing attention mainly to the thoughts to be 
expressed and the means of expressing them clearly, 
forcefully, and interestingly. Detailed correctness of 
form in the use of these means will then assume its 
proper place and importance. 

Pupils should now learn why some expressions are 
wrong, others right, and be held to the correction of 
their own formal errors, once they have been taught cor- 
rect forms. Let them compare their written work with 
given models, or test it by the comparatively few 
rules of punctuation, capitalization, and grammatical 
usage, and thus discover their own errors and correct 
them. One error so discovered and corrected by the 
pupil contributes more to the formation of habits of 
right usage than does the perfunctory correction 
of a dozen errors indicated by the teacher's blue 
pencil. 

The actual range of grammatical errors is small. 
At least half of them are errors in the use of verb 
forms. Many others consist of the wrong use of pro- 
nouns and their varying forms. 



12 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

Grammatical errors occur most abundantly in oral 
language. The correction of written errors will of 
itself do little to eradicate incorrect habits of speech ; 
for habits of speech rest on oral language, and appear 
on paper only because people write as they speak. 
A pupil who talks correctly will write correctly. The 
pen merely records the habits of the tongue. Com- 
mon errors, therefore, must be fought in oral language ; 
and the pupil's oral language presents vastly more 
opportunities to the teacher of grammar than the 
occasional written language exercise. 

The efficient teacher will carefully note errors in 
the language of her pupils, and make such errors the 
basis of instruction and drill when the time is oppor- 
tune. She will not always speak of them at the time 
they are made ; for nagging children too frequently 
about their language makes them timid in expression 
and destroys the very qualities the teacher is try- 
ing to develp — naturalness, spontaneity, and force. 
But though she may not interrupt every time the pupil 
makes a grammatical mistake, she will always quietly 
note the mistake, and sooner or later point it out, 
and require the pupil to explain why it was wrong and 
what he snould have said instead. Sometimes a sur- 
prised lift of the eyebrow will be enough to draw 
immediate attention to an error. At other times the 
teacher may say : "By the way, Tom, when you were 
speaking about so and so, you said, ' Nobody can do 
what they like.' Why was that wrong? What should 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 13 

you have said?" If the error is one to which Tom 
and his classmates are addicted, she will make it the 
subject of frequent review and drill, until the principle 
is thoroughly learned and spontaneously applied. 

Every lesson is indeed a language lesson. But 
do not throw a wet blanket over every subject by too 
frequent interruptions for oral errors. 

Teachers should not drill on errors just because they 
happen to be listed in the book. It is worse than a 
waste of time to drill pupils on errors which they never 
make. The language habits of the individuals should 
be noted, and the drills selected accordingly. If ad- 
ditional errors, not listed in the book, crop out from 
time to time, these should be made the subject of ad- 
ditional lessons. 

It is not enough that pupils correct their mistakes, 
even every single mistake. They must know why each 
correction is made, in order that they may not make 
the same mistake again. 

Try to impress upon the pupils the importance of 
using language correctly at all times. Boys and girls 
must be constantly and effectively shown that the 
correct and fitting use of English is necessary to success 
in life. Hold up the ideal of saying a thing so truly, 
so clearly, so forcibly, and so correctly that it will 
make on another mind exactly the impression desired. 

See also the " Important Note " on page 58 of this 
Manual. 



CHAPTER ONE 
STORIES 

This chapter illustrates the purpose and general 
method of the whole book. It begins with examples, 
not with rules. Some simple characteristics of good 
stories — those general characteristics that make stories 
good — are pointed out and studied. Then follow 
brief, interesting exercises in which the pupil writes 
stories of his own and tries to give them interest, 
movement, and climax. 

I. Three Tests of a Good Story (i) 

The story of the book critic presents in an interest- 
ing way the three essentials of stories that interest 
children. They wish the stories they write to be in- 
teresting, hence they must observe these essentials. 

Children, like grown people, tend to accept the 
words of the printed page passively. Such passive 
acceptance leads to no strong individual initiative. 
If you wish your pupils to apply the boy critic's three 
tests of a story actively, intelligently, and definitely, 
in judging any story they may read, or in writing any 
original story, they must accept these tests actively 
and apply them aggressively. They must know that 
these three tests are imperative. 

14 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 15 

Several periods may be spent profitably in reading 
short stories and applying these three tests. Have 
the children bring in short stories and read them aloud 
in class. Give chief attention to the stories that the 
pupils like. Let them determine whether each passes 
the three tests. Does any story please that does not 
meet these tests ? 

II. The Beginning or Introduction of a Story (2) 

This is an oral exercise. Throughout the book, 
oral exercises generally precede written exercises on 
the same subject. The former prepare for the latter. 

The questions asked in this exercise are only sug- 
gestive of the many questions that will be raised by 
teachers and pupils in discussing the possibilities of 
developing these beginnings of stories which are so 
full of suggestion. This oral exercise should stimu- 
late pupils' imagination. The teacher should encour- 
age the utmost freedom of suggestion. The greater 
the variety of suggestions the better. 

Do not accept the bare statement, "It is a good 
introduction" or "an interesting introduction." A 
really good introduction stimulates the imagination. 
Hence, a pupil who has thoughtfully, not perfunctorily 
declared an introduction to be "good," should be able 
to tell what it suggests to him. Encourage each pupil 
to express his own thoughts, no matter how unconven- 
tional they may be. Originality, not conventionality 
of thought should receive the premium of approval. 



16 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

Typical of a genuine but unconventional response of a 
real boy was one made to the second introduction 
(p. 3). Upon hearing this introduction read, and 
without waiting for a question, the boy exclaimed, 
"I'd like to settle that fellow. I just know I'd make 
him believe in ghosts!" In this case the carefully 
prepared questions were unnecessary; without more 
ado, the boy wrote the story that the introduction 
suggested to him. 

Various suggestions for each "beginning" may be 
written on the blackboard, not in full but in a few 
suggestive words. These suggestions may be allowed 
to remain on the board for the next exercise, which 
is to be written. They will serve to stimulate the 
more imaginative and to help those of less imagination. 

For example, take the first introduction (p. 2) — 

"I stole along the dark alley into the street." 

Here are some suggestions that were given : 

1. The Indians were coming to attack the village. I, a 
scout, was on my way to warn the people. 

2. I had been playing Halloween tricks on the street back 
of ours and was trying to sneak home. 

3. I was a prisoner escaping from a jail where I had been 
wrongfully imprisoned. 

4. I was a spy visiting an enemy town. I had been seen 
and the soldiers were following me. 

5. I am a detective tracking a man. 

6. I was sent to chop wood in the cellar. I am on my way 
to meet my chum and go swimming with him. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 17 

The above short notes suggest the variety of story 
plots that may grow out of one introduction. 



III. Making Stories from Introductions (4) 

The variety of stories that will be secured in this 
exercise will make them of genuine interest to the 
class. Several of the best, those most original and 
descriptive, should be read to the class by the teacher 
or by their authors. Then they should be freely dis- 
cussed. The primary object of this discussion should 
be to determine whether the story fulfills the purpose 
of the exercise. Hence it should revolve about the 
question : Does the story satisfy the curiosity aroused 
by the introduction? 

Ask pupils such questions as these : Did the intro- 
duction lead you to expect that the story would be 
amusing, mysterious, thrilling, or pathetic? Has the 
story satisfied your expectations? 

If further discussion of the pupils' stories seems 
desirable, let it consist largely of an appraisal of the 
stories' literary merits and defects. Direct pupils' 
attention to the content and general form of presen- 
tation rather than to technical details, such as the 
faults of grammar, spelling, and punctuation. It is 
not that these details should be neglected, but rather 
that the pupils should be interested at the outset in 
the expression of original ideas in an interesting and 
effective way; that they should get confidence in 



1 8 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

themselves, in their ability to tell something that will 
interest their fellow pupils. 

IV. Selecting Good Introductions (5) 

This is a lesson in the study of literature, with a 
specific purpose in the pupil's mind. This purpose 
the pupil should thoroughly appreciate before he is 
allowed to begin his search. The pupil who selects 
the introduction of the first story he finds, not only 
misses the purpose of this lesson, but fails to begin the 
formation of habits of research and comparison and 
judgment that will serve him through life. 

Impress upon the pupils that this study lesson in- 
volves three things : (1) reading several introductions, 
(2) comparing them, (3) selecting the best. 

When the selected introductions are brought into 
the class, ask such questions as these : 

How many introductions to stories have you read? Why 
did you select that one? How did it arouse your interest or 
curiosity — because it seemed to promise an amusing, or a 
mysterious, or an exciting, or a pathetic, or a heroic story? 
Did you bring it in just because you were asked to bring in 
one, and because you thought that one — any one — would 
be accepted? 

Of course, the first introduction that a child chances 
to find may be good, may be the one that he even- 
tually decides to bring to class ; but only the compari- 
son of several will enable him to decide how good the 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 19 

first is. Such comparison and decision constitutes the 
best part of the lesson. 

Criticize and have the pupils criticize the stories 
from a single standpoint — that of the boy critic. 
Is the introduction interesting? Does it arouse our 
curiosity or interest so that we wish to read fur- 
ther? 

For additional discussion, select four or five of the 
introductions brought to class. Have them written 
on the board. Number them. After the pupils have 
had time to read them over carefully, require each to 
write on a bit of scratch paper the number of the one 
he thinks best. Then ask, why does that introduc- 
tion interest you — that is, what feeling does it arouse 
in you ? Pupils write the answer to this question in a 
single sentence. 

This lesson may be very informal. For example, 
one child may have on his paper : 

It makes me feel that there is a mystery to follow. 

Another may have this : 

It arouses a feeling of curiosity to know whether the man es- 
capes and how. 

Do not lose sight of the chief purpose and value of 
these exercises. They help form habits of literary 
taste, habits of comparison, and of definite, thought- 
ful, and independent decision. 



20 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

V. Movement in Stories (5) 

This lesson is so definitely worked out that further 
suggestion seems scarcely necessary. See that the 
pupils understand the organization of the story as 
suggested in the outline (p. 11). 

If any pupil fails to appreciate the action in the 
story, change a few sentences and allow him to make 
comparison. For example, read the second para- 
graph as given in the pupil's book (p. 8). Then give 
the thought in these words : 

Young Lochinvar got up. He said, " What is your message ? " 

Let the pupil determine which shows the more rapid 
movement, these sentences or the form of expression 
in his book. 

In the same way, let the pupils select any sentence 
and render it in words that "slow up" the movement. 
Also ask the pupils to look for any sentence that can 
be changed to make the movement more rapid than 
it already is. 

The more drill the pupils have in changing the move- 
ment, the better able they will be to make their own 
adaptation of a poem in the next exercise. 

VI. Making Prose Versions of Poems Full of Action (11) 

In the poems given, the action is so straightforward 
that the pupils will have no difficulty in rewriting 
them if they follow the directions in the book. Be- 
fore they begin to rewrite the stories, let each choose 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 21 

his poem and make a brief outline of his story. Let 
him also make a list of the words and expressions in 
the poem that he thinks he can use to make his story 
alive, interesting, and perhaps beautiful. The follow- 
ing is an example of a pupil's possible outline and list : 

The Cumberland 

i. The Man-of-war is lying at anchor near Fortress Monroe. 
"The alarm of the drum" — "a bugle blast." 

2. The Merrimac is sighted in the distance coming to the 
attack. 

"A little feather of snow-white smoke" — "steadily 
steering its course" — "iron ship" — "ribs of oak." 

3. She steams up and opens fire. 
"Flash of smoke" — "terrible death." 

4. Her commander's challenge. 
"Arrogant." 

5. Morris' reply. 
"Never" — "gallant." 

6. Cumberland is sunk. 

"Crushed our ribs" — "iron grasp." 

7. Her flag still waves. 

"Brave hearts" — "troubled stream." 

Such a skeleton outline not only gives the events 
in order ; it calls up the feelings, emotions, and mental 
pictures suggested by the story. 

Several of the poems named can be found in almost 
any good school reader. Most of them can be readily 
secured by teacher or pupils. 



22 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

VII. Judging Stories (12) 

(a) This lesson suggests the preparation that each 
pupil should make for the class exercise that should 
follow. This class exercise should be similar to that 
in connection with the "Story of Lochinvar" (p. 8); 
but in this exercise pupils are studying critically 
their own attempts at writing a prose version of a 
poem. Attention, of course, should be directed chiefly 
to the movement which they have succeeded in 
securing. 

(b) In reading another pupil's story have the reader 
follow this order: 

(1) Read the introduction. Then stop to criticize: as, 
"The introduction is good, because it makes me want to 
read the rest of the story." Or, "This introduction is not 
very good, because it arouses little desire to find out what 
follows." 

(2) Read the rest of the story, and make comment : as, 
"This story is full of interesting happenings, but the movement 
is too slow. I think it would improve the story to," etc., etc. 

Do not hold the pupil responsible for a criticism 
of the ending beyond the statement that the story is 
complete or incomplete — that it satisfies, or fails to 
satisfy curiosity or interest. 

Take time to criticize these stories appreciatively. 
You are establishing standards for pupils' future ap- 
preciation and expression. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 23 

VIII. The End of a Story (13) 

The need of a climax in a story and a satisfactory- 
ending is appreciated by children from the earliest 
years. This lesson simply formulates this knowledge 
and helps the pupil to express in words what he has 
always felt. 

LX. Good Story Endings (15) 

In preparation for the written exercise that is to 
follow, have each pupil select the ending that most 
appeals to him. Then ask: "From your ending, 
what kind of story do you think this is — pathetic, 
amusing, exciting, mysterious, etc.?" 

The clear thinking necessary to answer this ques- 
tion will help the child to formulate the plot of his 
story. 

X. Writing a Story to Fit an Ending (18) 

Before pupils begin writing, have them give several 
suggestions for stories to fit each ending. For ex- 
ample, the first ending may produce story sugges- 
tions such as these : 

1. Billie Ricketts ran over the little boy. He found the 
boy had no parents. He brought him home and adopted him. 

2. Billie Ricketts fell on the ice. The little boy helped 
him home. Billie adopted him. 

3. The little boy was Billie Rickett's brother's child. The 
brother had died. Billie found the boy at the orphans' home 
and adopted him. 



24 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

These three plots, actually suggested by children, 
are merely illustrative of the many that may be ob- 
tained. Of course none of these is the true plot ; but 
the direction is, "Do not try to reproduce the 
author's story." 

However, after the children have finished their 
stories, they will enjoy reading, discussing, and mak- 
ing comparisons with the authors' complete stories. 
Especially will they enjoy "The House of the Seven 
Santas," from "A Little Book of Christmas," by John 
Kendrick Bangs, and "Miss Beulah's Sunday Bonnet," 
by Rose Terry Cook. The reading and discussion of 
these two stories will make excellent supplementary 
and additional lessons, especially as the pupils will 
study them as models of good story writing. 

XL Writing a Story in Parts (19) 

This "socialized" exercise, consisting of three parts, 
writing introductions, stories, and endings, with an 
interchange of papers between each two parts, should 
stimulate the best efforts of every pupil. The class 
exercise following, in which some of the typical prod- 
ucts of this cooperative effort are discussed, should 
be guided largely by the boy critic's three tests of 
good writing. 

XII. Telling a Story (20) 

This exercise is the test of all that has gone before 
in this chapter. Pupils who have understood the pur- 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 25 

pose in each preceding exercise, and have worked out 
that purpose consciously, should be able to write well- 
organized, interesting short stories.' They should also 
be able to judge the merits of their own stories and 
those of their classmates. 

Instead of correcting these stories yourself, give 
one (not his own) to each pupil. Ask him to read it 
carefully and to mark it as follows : 

Introduction — good (or poor) 
Ending — good (or poor) 
Story — good (or poor) 

Then have each pupil tell why he has marked the 
story as he has, as : 

"I marked this introduction good because it aroused my 
interest." "I marked this ending poor because it doesn't 
really finish the story." "I call this story good because it is 
-interesting and the events move along in the right order." 

Any pupil whose story is criticized has the right to 
take exception to any criticism and prove that it is 
unmerited. Of course all criticism must be kindly 
and given with the understanding that the critic, by 
his criticism, is showing whether or not he is a good 
judge of stories. In making the criticism he is on 
trial even more than the story or the writer of the 
story. 



CHAPTER TWO 

SUBJECT; PREDICATE; SUBSTANTIVE; VERB 

This chapter lays the foundation of grammatical 
study. 

I. The Meaning and Use of Grammar (22) 

The purpose of this section, which the teacher 
should study through with the class, is to explain the 
meaning and use of grammar, and to interest pupils 
in the study. Encourage questions and free discus- 
sion. Ask pupils why the expressions listed in the 
first column are right, the others wrong; when they 
cannot tell, make them see that this proves their 
need of the study of grammar. The definition, like 
all other sentences in bold-faced type, is to be learned 
verbatim for future use. The definitions and sentences 
in bold-faced type should become a permanent part of 
every pupil's "mental furniture." 

For the importance of the study of grammar, see 
pages 7-10 of this Manual. 

II. Subject and Predicate (23) 

The sentence is the fundamental unit in all spoken 
or written language, and its nature — a combination 

of subject and predicate — is the foundation of all 

26 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 27 

language teaching. It is necessary that every pupil 
acquire the "sentence-sense," by which the completed 
thought is recognized as complete, and is set off by 
itself. To try to teach language without making our 
pupils "sentence-sure" is futile. There is no use in 
trying to build a superstructure where a foundation is 
lacking ; and the foundation of speaking and writing 
is subject and predicate. Every pupil must be taught 
to see with precision just when a sentence begins and 
when it ends. 

The pupil's book outlines the most effective way to 
teach what makes a complete thought. Work through 
the lesson with the class as a group, writing the illus- 
trative sentence and words on the blackboard, and 
leading the minds of the pupils by questions. Would 
Scott have expressed a thought by writing "bride- 
groom"? How much would he have told by "bride- 
groom"? By "The poor craven bridegroom"? 
What different thoughts might he have had about this 
person? (Let pupils suggest other thoughts than 
those given in their book.) Is "said never a word" 
a complete thought ? What is needed to complete 
the thought? What other person might the thought 
be about? (Let pupils suggest other subjects than 
those given in their book.) What two things are needed 
for a complete thought ? When you have led the minds 
of the pupils to this point, they are ready for the defi- 
nitions, which will now have meaning for them and 
should be memorized for future use. 



28 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

In exercises (b) and (c), do not accept commonplace 
sentences like "Our playground is a nice place." 
Insist that the pupils make their sentences as interesting 
as they can. Let them add words to the given subjects 
and predicates if they wish. In this way make (b) and 
(c) exercises in thought and expression. 
I Do not let the weaker pupils escape you. Note 
their failures and keep after them ; the bright pupils 
can look after themselves. Test and strengthen the 
understanding of slow pupils by analyzing with them 
several additional sentences, chosen perhaps from then- 
own compositions. When a pupil writes as a sentence 
something that is not a sentence, copy it on the 
board and have it studied. 

III. Sentences and Not Sentences (26) 

Purpose: to develop still further the "sentence- 
sense" and make pupils more "sentence-sure," espe- 
cially when groups of words contain participles, which 
often confuse. Use (a) and (b) as an oral group les- 
son, writing the illustrative words on the board and 
asking the questions in the text. Make the slowest 
pupil see that the possessive is not the subject of the 
thought, and that the word ending in "ing" does not 
in itself make an assertion. To make clear the differ- 
ence between the subject of the thought and a mere 
possessive, let the pupil compare such sentences as the 
following : 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 29 

The baby is lost ! 

The baby's rattle is lost. 

The following sentences may be compared to 
make clear the difference between assertions and words 
merely descriptive : 

Plants need sunshine. 

Growing plants need sunshine. 

The plants growing in the garden need sunshine. 

These plants are growing well. 

Use (c) as either an oral or a written exercise. 

Supplementary Work 

If a class is sentence-weak, the exercises in this 
section should be supplemented as follows: 

1. Give orally groups of words, some making sen- 
tences, others not; and let the backward pupils tell 
whether the groups are sentences or not. The groups 
of words may be invented, or extracted from the reader. 
Pupils may make sentences of the non-sentence groups 
read to them. If a group of words puzzles them when 
read to them, write it on the board. 

2. Copy on the board a paragraph of short sen- 
tences, omitting the capitals and periods. Let the 
pupils who are sentence-weak tell where each sen- 
tence begins and ends. 

3. Have the class pay close attention while you read 
to them a selection with a view to their telling, when 



30 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

you have finished, how many sentences you read. Do 
not help them too much with your voice. 

If some individuals are particularly weak in the 
sentence-sense, coach them separately until all traces 
of the weakness disappear. Use sentences and not- 
sentences from their own writing. This work is basic. 

IV. Marking the Beginning and End of Sentences (28) 

Purpose : (1) to enlarge the pupil's conception of 
a sentence so as to include questions, and (2) to 
review the correct way of marking the beginning and 
the end of sentences. Study the lesson with the 
pupils as outlined in the book. Use the blackboard, 
and lead the pupils' minds by questions. Have them 
memorize verbatim the bold-faced type. 

V. Studying Declarative, Interrogative, and Explanatory 

Sentences (30) 

Purpose : to strengthen the habit of marking aright 
the beginning and the end of sentences of different 
kinds. Have the class study the sentences in (d), 
following the models in (a), (b), and (c) in the book. 
Insist on complete statements. The formal repetition, 
in complete statements, of the reasons for the capitals 
and punctuation marks helps to fix in the mind the 
things that the lesson is designed to review or teach. 

If more work of this kind is needed, copy on the 
blackboard a paragraph of suitable sentences, with 
the proper capitals and terminal marks, and let the 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 31 

pupils who need more drill give in complete statements 
the reasons for the capitals and terminal marks. 

If pupils, in any of their exercises, have written 
sentences without marking properly the beginning 
and the end, copy their sentences on the board and 
have the error explained and corrected before the 
class. 

VI. Making Sentences (31) 

This is an exercise in composition, either oral or 
written, which will still further develop the sentence- 
sense. Do not accept commonplace sentences like 
"Lions roar." Insist on sentences as interesting as 
the pupils can make them. Let them enlarge with as 
many words as they wish the subjects and predicates 
given in their book. Encourage competition by com- 
mending sentences of unusual interest. 

VII. Position of the Subject (32) 

Purpose : to teach pupils to recognize the subject 
in sentences of some difficulty. Short sentences in 
which the subject precedes the predicate are too 
easy; they can be separated into subject and predi- 
cate almost mechanically, without any real thought 
or insight on the part of the pupil. He begins to 
acquire power and insight when he begins to think, 
and to see because he thinks. The real test of the 
sentence-sense comes in the analysis of sentences 
whose structure is not immediately obvious, such as 



32 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

those in the exercises in this section. These sen- 
tences require thought, and their analysis into subject 
and predicate develops real insight. Such study 
helps pupils to read poetry understandingly, and 
also prepares the way for the application of gram- 
matical rules in later sections such as XIV (ioo) and 
XV (105) in Chapter Four. 

Study through the preliminary analysis with the 
pupils, using the blackboard and leading their minds 
with questions. Confine their attention to the entire 
subject and the entire predicate, which together in- 
clude all the words. 

Let the pupils themselves analyze orally the sen- 
tences in (a), following the model given in their book. 
The same sentences may be made a written exercise 
by telling the pupils to copy the sentences and to 
underline all the words that form the entire subject 
(or the entire predicate). 

Use (b) and (c) first as oral exercises, if you wish, 

before assigning them for writing. Have the pupils 

tell which arrangement of the words they like best, and 

why. 

VIII. The Subject Substantive (34) 

This is the beginning of the next step toward under- 
standing how sentences are made. " Subject sub- 
stantive" is the term approved by the National Edu- 
cation Association. It is scientifically accurate, and 
not as difficult for boys and girls as it sounds. 

Work through the lesson with the class as before, 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 33 

using the blackboard and leading up to the definitions 
by such questions as these : Can "young" be omitted 
from the subject, and the thought still be complete? 
Read the sentence without it. Can "Lochinvar" be 
omitted ? Read the sentence without it. What is the 
principal or necessary word in the subject of this sen- 
tence ? 

Let pupils suggest other subject substantives that 
might be used in the same sentences ; e.g. Buffalo Bill, 
Indian, cousin, etc. 

LX. Studying Sentences for Subject Substantive (36) 

Purpose : to teach pupils to recognize the subject 
substantive instantly. It prepares the way for their 
understanding later the use of the nominative case 
and the agreement of a verb with its subject. Let 
the pupils themselves analyze orally the sentences in 
(c), following the models given in (a) and (b). These 
sentences have purposely been made not too easy, for 
we are aiming at real insight and power. The same 
exercise may be made a written one by telling the 
class to copy the sentences, underlining once the entire 
subject and twice the subject substantive. Or the 
entire subject may be written on one side of a vertical 
line, the predicate on the other, and the subject sub- 
stantive underlined once. 

Have the pupils analyze in the same way sentences 
taken from their own writing or speaking. 

If more work on the subject substantive is needed, 



34 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

read to the class sentences from some book and have 
the pupils who need the drill most tell the subject 
substantive of each sentence you read. 

X. The Verb (38) 

It is easier to recognize the verb than to define it ; 
and fortunately it is more important that a pupil be 
able to feel the verb in a sentence than to explain its 
nature. The definition used in the pupil's book 
refers to the nature of the verb in its chief function. 
This is more satisfactory than a definition that refers 
only to its relative importance in the predicate. The 
vital thing, however, is not the definition, but the 
power to recognize a verb instantly. 

The pupil's book outlines the most effective way of 
teaching the function of the verb. 

Work through the lesson with the class, using 
blackboard and questions. Let the pupils mention 
as many other verbs as they can that might be used 
in the same sentences ; e.g. hurried, traveled, uttered, 
etc. This helps to enlarge their vocabulary as well as 
to drive home the nature and importance of the verb. 

XI. Studying Sentences for Subject Substantive and 
Verb (40) 

Purpose: to teach pupils to recognize the verb 
instantly. It prepares the way for all subsequent 
work with verbs. Use it first as an oral exercise. 

Let the pupils themselves analyze orally the sen- 
tences in (c), following the models given in (a) and (b). 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 35 

In order that the exercise present enough difficulty 
to develop real power of analysis, sentences have 
been chosen that show verbs in many different posi- 
tions. The same exercise may be used later as a 
written one by telling the class to copy the sentences, 
underlining once the entire predicate and twice the 
verb. Or the entire subject may be written on one 
side of a vertical line, the predicate on the other, and 
the verb underlined once. 

Have the pupils analyze in the same way sentences 
selected from their own writing or speaking. 

Use (d) and (e) first as oral exercises, writing the 
lists of verbs on the board as they are mentioned by 
the pupils. Interesting and valuable exercises similar 
to (d) and (e) can be easily made by using paragraphs 
and sentences that the pupils themselves have written. 

An interesting competition or game may be made of 
(e) in the following way. Allow a definite time — 
two, three, or four minutes — in which each pupil 
is to write down on paper all the verbs he can think 
of that are appropriate to use with a subject named 
by the teacher. When the time has expired, have one 
pupil read his list of verbs aloud while you write them 
on the board. The other pupils check off on their 
lists every verb written on the board. When the first 
pupil's list is exhausted, let any pupil who has other 
verbs give them, while you add them to the list on the 
board, which will soon contain all the verbs thought 
of. Score may be kept by giving a point for every 



36 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

appropriate verb and two points for every appropriate 
verb that no other pupil thought of. Such exercises 
as this stimulate interest in words, enlarge the vocab- 
ulary, and encourage pupils to choose fitting words. 
The same kind of game or competition may be employed 
in teaching pupils to use a wider range of nouns, adjec- 
tives, and other parts of speech. 

Use (/) first as an oral exercise. In preparation for 
it, have each pupil write down in order the verbs he 
proposes to use in the blank places. When a pupil 
is called on, let him read the selection aloud, supply- 
ing the verbs from his list. Let the fitness of the 
verbs be freely discussed. Accept either verbs or 
verb phrases, but do not dwell at this time on the dis- 
tinction between them. 1 Number the blanks, and 
write on the board under each number all the words 
suggested for that blank. Then let the class decide 
which verb is best for each blank. After their choice 
has been made, it may be compared with Stevenson's 
choice in "Travels with a Donkey " : pushed, got, grew, 
bettered, gave, freshened, poured, sighted, found, 
came, led. Later (/) may be used as a written exercise 
after the manner of (e). 

Supplementary Work 

i. Copy on the blackboard some paragraphs or 
sentences from the pupils' own compositions, sub- 

1 Verb Phrases, page 206 of the pupil's book, may be taught in con- 
nection with this lesson, if preferred ; and they should be taught as soon as 
pupils notice verb phrases as distinct from verbs. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD- 37 

stituting blanks for such verbs as it is possible to supply 
from the context. Have each pupil write down in 
order the verbs with which he would fill the blanks, so 
that if called on he may read the selection aloud, supply- 
ing the verbs from his list. Then, as a class exercise, 
number the blanks, and write on the board under each 
number all the verbs which the class can suggest for 
that blank, perhaps adding some of your own. Let the 
fitness of the verbs.be freely discussed, and the class 
decide which is best for the author's purpose. After 
all the blanks have been filled, the verbs chosen by the 
class may be compared with those used by the original 
author. 

2. The following selections may be used for similar 
exercises. Copy them on the board or a mimeograph, 
substituting blanks for the italics. 

(1) I was watching the operations of Fan, a little Skye terrier, 
who was excitedly sniffing at a wheatstack which was in the 
course of being thrashed. Suddenly a very large rat bounced 
off, just from under Fan's nose. It darted into a pit of water 
about a dozen yards from the stack, and tried to escape. Fan 
plunged after and swam for some distance, but found she was 
being left behind. So she turned to the shore again, ran round 
to the other side of the pit, and was ready and caught the rat 
just as it landed. 

(2) The wind among the trees was my lullaby. Sometimes 
it sounded for minutes together with a steady even rush, not 
ming nor abating ; and again it would swell and burst like a great 
crashing breaker, and the trees would patter me all over with 
big drops from the rain of the afternoon. Night after night, in 



38 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

my own bedroom in the country, I have given ear to this per- 
turbing concert of the wind among the woods. 

— Robert Louis Stevenson. 

(3) The sun came out as I left the shelter of a pine-wood, and 
I beheld suddenly a fine wild landscape to the south. High 
rocky hills, as blue as sapphire, closed the view, and between 
these lay ridge upon ridge, heathery, craggy, the sun glittering 
on veins of rock, the underwood clambering in the hollows. The 
mists, which had hitherto beset me, were now broken into clouds 
and fled swiftly and shone brightly in the sun. 

— Robert Louis Stevenson. 

XII. Compound Subjects (42) 

XIII. Compound Predicates (43) 

The purpose of these two oral exercises is to explain 
a very common kind of sentence and prepare the way 
for understanding the incorrectness of such sentences 
as "John and me went fishing," VIII (93), or "Tom 
and Mary was there," XVI (108). 

Leading the class up to the definitions in the usual 
manner by blackboard and questions, let the pupils 
themselves analyze the sentences in (b), following the 
models given in (a). 

XIV. Use of Compound Subjects and Predicates (40) 

An oral and written exercise, the purpose of which 
is to encourage pupils to avoid useless repetition of 
words, and loose sentences like those in (e). Work 
through the exercise orally with the class before asking 
them to write it. 



CHAPTER THREE 

TOPICS; PARAGRAPHS; OUTLINES 

I. What a Topic Is (48) 

The topics to be treated under any subject depend 
on the purpose of the author in discussing the subject 
at all. For example, if, in writing about "stories," the 
author's purpose is to discuss the criticism of stories, 
the three tests suggested by the boy critic may well 
be made topics for consideration. — 1. Introduction, 
2. Movement, 3. Climax. If, however, the author's 
purpose is to discuss the telling or reading of stories 
the topics will be quite different. 

Before allowing the children to make topics for any 

of the subjects given on page 49, have them state 

clearly the purpose of their treatment of the subject. 

Write on the board a few of these purposes, letting 

each stand out as a particular subject, and under 

each write its appropriate topics. The following is an 

illustration : 

Flowers 

1. Cultivation of Flowers 

Preparation of ground ; planting seeds ; care of plants. 

2. Planting Flowers 

Flowers that grow best in rich soil. 
Flowers that grow best in sandy soil. 
Flowers that grow best in marshy ground. 
39 



40 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

3. Garden Flowers 

Annuals ; perennials ; bulbs ; or 

Spring flowers; summer flowers; autumn flowers; or 

Flowers in border ; flowers in beds ; flowers that climb. 

4. Flowers for Decoration 

Outside ; in the house ; on the person. 

5. Use of Flowers 
Beauty; perfume; honey. 

The more definitely pupils learn to formulate their 
purpose in speaking or writing, the clearer their think- 
ing and planning will be. 

Two lessons may well be given from the subjects 
on page 49. In the first, the children may write some 
particular subjects under each general subject that is 
given, as : 

Knights 

The Purpose of Knights. 

The Training of a Knight. 

The Knight's Oath. 

The Knight's Armor. 

The Knight's Method of Fighting. 

In the next lesson pupils may write topics under 
each particular subject, as : 

The Purpose of Knights 

To right the wrong. 

To help the weak. 

To serve the king. 

The Training of a Knight 

His services as a page. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 41 

His services as a squire. 
The winning of his spurs. 

Keep some of these particular subjects and topics 
on the board for use in the next lesson. 

II. What a Paragraph Is (49) 

After studying this lesson, let each pupil select one 
of the subjects and its topics prepared in the last 
lesson, and make the necessary paragraphs. For 
example, if you have followed the suggestion in the 
last lesson and kept on the board the subjects and 
topics worked out by the pupils, a pupil may select 
any one of these subjects and say in explanation: 
"I'm writing of the training of a knight. I shall 
have three paragraphs. The first paragraph will 
tell what his duties as a page were. The second para- 
graph will tell what his duties as a squire were. The 
third paragraph will tell how a squire became a 
knight." With the form of his composition thus 
clearly stated, and the necessary information in his 
possession, the pupil can easily construct three good 
paragraphs. 

III. Studying Paragraphs for Topics (50) 
IV. Outlines (53) 

Let these be class study lessons. To test their 
success, follow them by individual studies, in which 



42 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

each child shall choose a selection from a reader, his- 
tory, or geography, and find for himself the topics 
in two or three paragraphs. Such extended study of 
the practice of good writers will help to impress upon 
pupils the practical importance of thoughtfulness and 
care in the grouping of ideas and the sentences express- 
ing them. 

V. Description from Outlines (53) 

Before allowing pupils to write the topics for any 
subject given in this exercise, insist that each one for- 
mulate his purpose and attitude toward the subject 
that he chooses, because his attitude must determine 
to a large extent the topics and their arrangement. 
To assist pupils in this, some such questions as these 
may be asked : 

A Rainy Day 

Are you going to describe a rainy day that you liked or 
one that you disliked? If you liked it, if for example it was 
just what you wanted for your garden, how would the gray 
sky impress you? Would you not welcome the shadow and 
coolness after the glare and heat of the sun that was burning 
up your plants? How would the patter of the rain sound? 
How would your plants seem to welcome the rain? Would 
you enjoy watching the raindrops chase down your window- 
pane ? Would you look upon the shower as a blessing ? 

On the other hand, if it had been raining for a week, and 
you were in a strange place and homesick and lonely and every- 
thing around you felt damp and uncomfortable, how would 
you feel toward the rain ? 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 43 

If you had planned a jolly day out-of-doors, and had pre- 
pared a picnic luncheon and invited your dearest friends to 
spend the day with you, and you awoke to find it raining, and 
felt sure that it was going to be an all-day rain and that your 
plans for the good time were spoiled, how would you feel towards 
the rain? 

The Woods 

Will you describe a wood that you have seen from a distance, 
or one that you have passed through, or one that you know 
well and love? 

Will you describe the woods for their beauty, dangers, kinds 
of trees, or the value of the trees ? 

An Old Man I Know 

Is he an old man that you love, and want to have others 
like and respect? Is he an old man that amuses you by his 
stories and bright sayings? Is he an old man that you pity, 
and for whom you should like to win sympathy? 

VI. Noting Change in Topics (55) 

This exercise may be supplemented by similar exer- 
cises which may be readily prepared by the teacher. 
Let a suitable selection of two or more paragraphs be 
written on the blackboard without paragraph inden- 
tion ; then let the pupils find the separate topics treated 
and indicate the word that should begin a new para- 
graph. 

Select several paragraphs and read them aloud to 
the pupils, asking them to listen and tell you how many 
paragraphs you have read. Later they may give the 



44 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

topic of each. For this exercise, use a selection in 
which the paragraphing is simple and obvious. 

VII. The Topic Sentence (56) 

Supplement this exercise by having each pupil find 
in one of his textbooks a paragraph containing a good 
topic sentence. 

VIII. Newspaper Topic Sentences (58) 

LX. Making Topic Sentences (59) 

The exercises in the above lessons afford additional 
opportunities for the pupils to observe carefully and 
to analyze the need of paragraph divisions ; that is, 
the grouping together of all the sentences that pertain 
to one topic. This study is of inestimable value in 
forming habits of clear thinking and pointed speaking 
and writing. 

Test each topic sentence as given, by asking, — 
Does that topic sentence suggest the gist of the whole 
paragraph ? Does it suggest more than the paragraph 
tells? 

Take time to judge and compare the fitness of sev- 
eral sentences given by different pupils. For example, 
in studying paragraph 2, page 59, the following are 
some topic sentences that might be offered, and the 
comments that might be made on them : 

1. It was very dark. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 45 

This is true, but it does not suggest the true condi- 
tion as set forth in the complete paragraphs. 

2. The darkness made walking difficult. 

This is better, but still does not suggest the para- 
graph picture. 

3. Owing to the storm there was no travel. 

This is much better. The paragraph makes clear 
why this was so. (a) The wind accompanying the 
storm had blown out the street lights, (b) The rain 
and cold of the storm had made the streets icy. 
(c) The storm had hidden the moon and stars and 
caused an unnatural darkness, (d) The fierceness of 
the storm kept all living things housed. 

This exercise may be supplemented to advantage 
by asking the pupils to write a topic sentence for each 
paragraph in any assigned history, geography, or 
reading lesson. This is one of the best methods of 
getting at the important points in any study. 

X. How Paragraphs Grow (60) 

XL Analyzing Paragraphs for Ways of Growth (60) 

XII. Writing an Outline of a Paragraph (64) 

Study these lessons with the pupils. They are not 
lessons to be recited. They are lessons to help the 
pupil in his own conversation and writing. This 
studying of the ways in which others have organized 



46 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

and expressed their thoughts will help the pupil to 
think more clearly and to speak and write more intel- 
ligently. 

XIII. Planning Paragraphs (64) 

This exercise is designed to help the pupil form some 
good habits in the organizing of thought. It sum- 
marizes the lessons learned in former studies of the 
writings of others, and gives the pupil a few rules to 
follow if he would improve his own speaking and 
writing. These' rules are not meant to be studied 
and recited. They simply express, in few words, the 
facts that the pupil has learned in his study of the 
writings of others. Let him apply these directions 
in planning the paragraphs required in subsequent 
exercises. 

XIV. Paragraph Talks (67) 

Before having the pupils make the outlines for their 
talks, ask them some such questions as the following, 
to impress them with the need of clear thinking and 
orderly expression : 

Why do people talk — to hear themselves, for their own 
pleasure, or to entertain or instruct others ? If they talk for 
the first reason, does it make any difference what they say, or 
how they say it ? If they really want to entertain and inform 
others, should they choose an interesting subject? Should 
they take pains to collect interesting facts ? Should they ar- 
range these facts, so that their hearers can easily understand 
them? 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 47 

Then let your pupils read over the topics given in 
the book, and let each one select the topic that is most 
interesting to him. Let him select the interesting 
facts that he wishes to tell about his topic. Finally, 
have him arrange these facts in the form of an outline 
for his talk. 

XV. The Beginning, Middle, and End of a Paragraph (69) 

In this lesson make frequent comparisons between 
the writing of the paragraph and the writing of the 
whole story, as studied in Lessons I, II, V, and VIII, 
Chapter I. 

XVI. Making Paragraphs from Topic Sentences (71) 

In this lesson the main purpose is to help the pupil 
to form the habit of thinking in a clear and orderly 
manner. Constructive criticism of the pupil's oral 
attempts will make much criticism of his written 
attempts unnecessary. 

XVII. Writing a Paragraph from a Topic Sentence (72) 

This exercise is the culmination and test of your 
successful teaching of the last lesson. 

XVIII. Connecting Paragraphs (73) 

This brief study simply suggests the idea of theme 
development. It directs the pupil's attention to good 
models in the hope that his own efforts may be better 



48 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

guided by a direct purpose. Study the lesson with 
the pupils just as suggested in the book. A thorough 
treatment of the subject belongs in high school and 
college. Macaulay's Essays and History of England 
contain many examples of clear connection between 
paragraphs, which will be interesting and suggestive 
even to young pupils, if copied on the board. 

XLX, XX, XXI. The Conversation Paragraph (74-77) 

This subject is largely review, as the children have 
been speaking and writing conversation paragraphs 
for several years. The exercises given in their book 
offer some new motives for writing conversations. 

XXII. Writing a Letter in Paragraphs (77) 

Before assigning this lesson have the pupils study 
Lesson IV, page 128, for a review of letter forms. 

XXIII. Comparing the Paragraph and the Stanza (78) 

If this lesson is properly assimilated, the reading, 
memorizing, and teaching of poetry will be much 
improved. The stanza should not be made the basis 
of thought study or of memorizing or of reading, unless 
it marks a unit of thought. 

Study with the pupils a poem in which the stanza 
does not mark a paragraph division; for example, 
The Wreck of the Hesperus. If this were written 
in prose form, the first conversation paragraph would 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 49 

include the fourth stanza, and two lines of the fifth; 
the second conversation paragraph would correspond 
with the eighth stanza ; the third conversation para- 
graph would take the first two lines of the tenth stanza ; 
while the last two lines of that stanza would make the 
fourth conversation paragraph, etc. 

Have the pupils read poems from their reading 
books, and note the paragraph divisions. 

Explanatory Note on " The Torch of Life " 

The language of the first stanza is the language of 
the cricket field. " Close " means " enclosed field." 
" Pitch " means " the ground or turf in front of the 
wicket, on which the ball is bowled." The meaning 
of the first four lines is as follows : 

" There is a breathless hush, from excitement, in the 
cricket Field to-night. If the school team can make 
ten runs, it will win the match. The turf is hard and 
rough, making the ball bounce unevenly, and the light 
makes it hard for the batsman to see the ball. There 
is only an hour left to play, and all the other members 
of the team have been put out." 

The player does his best, not for his own sake, but 
for the sake of the game. 



CHAPTER FOUR 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS; NOMINATIVE CASE; NUM- 
BER AND PERSON; AGREEMENT OF VERBS; 
GENDER; AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS 

Purpose of the Chapter 

Pupils who have used the Second Aldine Language 
Book have already been introduced to the parts of 
speech as a means of teaching them to select and use 
words with better discrimination and effect. The 
purpose of this chapter is to give a working knowledge 
of the grammatical terms, distinctions, and usages 
that surround nouns and pronouns, with exercises 
which make direct practical application of that knowl- 
edge. Only those grammatical concepts are presented 
which have direct practical bearing on good use and 
grammatical correctness. Using the ground prepared 
in Chapter Two, the sections in this chapter lead 
swiftly to an understanding of those few and simple 
rules which govern the use of the nominative case, 
the agreement of a verb with its subject, and the 
agreement of a pronoun with its antecedent. The 
knowledge of these rules will show boys and girls 
how to avoid a large block of common errors. 

so 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 51 

I. Nouns Common and Proper (81) 

Use this section as an oral group exercise. Write 
on the blackboard the lines in (a) and ask the ques- 
tions found in the pupil's book. Only backward 
pupils will need drill on the difference between or- 
dinary common and proper nouns. But the writing 
of the words father, mother, uncle, aunt, and cousin 
perplexes even grown people. If the rule given at 
the bottom of page 82 and the examples on the next 
page are not sufficient to guide the pupil, he may con- 
sult the variant rule on page 443 of his book. 

II. Studying Sentences for Nouns {&$) 

Purpose : to teach pupils to recognize instantly nouns 
that are harder than those previously studied. Nouns 
with easy concrete meaning are now perfectly familiar. 
The exercises in this section provide practice in the 
quick recognition of nouns like crash, laughter, life, 
courage. This is a necessary foundation for a sure 
application of the rules of concord which come later. 
The exercise may be either oral or written. 

Supplementary Work 

1. Copy on the blackboard some paragraphs or 
sentences from the pupils' own compositions, substitut- 
ing blanks for such nouns as it is possible to supply 
from the context. Have each pupil write down in 



52 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

order the nouns with which he would fill the blanks, 
so that if called on he may read the selection aloud, 
supplying the nouns from his list. Then, as a class 
exercise, number the blanks, and write on the board 
under each number all the nouns which the class can 
suggest for that blank, perhaps adding some of your 
own. Let the fitness of the nouns be freely discussed, 
and let the class decide which is the best for author's 
purpose. After all the blanks have been filled, the 
nouns chosen by the class may be compared with those 
used by the original author. 

2. The following selections may be used for similar 
exercises in seeking the most appropriate noun and 
thus enlarging one's working vocabulary : 

(i) When Theseus was ushered into the royal apartment, 
the only object that he seemed to behold was the white-bearded 
old king. There he sat on his magnificent throne, a dazzling 
crown on his head> and a sceptre in his hand. His aspect was 
stately and majestic, although his years and infirmities weighed 
heavily upon him, as if each year were a lump of lead, and each 
infirmity a ponderous stone, and all were bundled up together, 
and laid upon his weary shoulders. 

— Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

(2) On the other side he looked down into a deep mountain 
glen, wild, lonely, and shagged, the bottom filled with fragments 
from the impending cliffs, and scarcely lighted by the reflected 
rays of the setting sun. For some time Rip lay musing on this 
scene; evening was gradually advancing; the mountains began 
to throw their long blue shadows over the valleys; he saw that 
it would be dark long before he could reach the village, and he 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 53 

heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the 
terrors of Dame Van Winkle. 

— Washington Irving, 

(3) As he was about to descend, he heard a voice from a 
distance, hallooing, "Rip Van Winkle! Rip Van Winkle!" 
He looked round, but could see nothing but a crow winging its 
solitary flight across the mountain. He thought his fancy must 
have deceived him, and turned again to descend, when he heard 
the same cry ring through the still evening air. "Rip Van Win- 
kle ! Rip Van Winkle !" — at the same time Wolf bristled up 
his back, and giving a low growl, skulked to his master's side, 
looking fearfully down into the glen. Rip now felt a vague 
apprehension stealing over him; he looked anxiously in the 
same direction, and perceived a strange figure slowly toiling up 
the rocks, and bending under the weight of something he carried 
on his back. He was surprised to see any human being in this 
lonely and unfrequented place; but supposing it to be some one 
of the neighborhood in need of his assistance, he hastened down 
to yield it. 

— Washington Irving. 

(4) Night is a dead monotonous period under a roof ; but in 
the open world it passes lightly, with its stars and dews and 
perfumes, and the hours are marked by changes in the face of 
Nature. What seems a kind of temporal death to people choked 
between walls and curtains, is only a light and living slumber to 
the man who sleeps afield. All night long he can hear Nature 
breathing deeply and freely ; even as she takes her rest she turns 
and smiles; and there is one stirring hour unknown to those 
who dwell in houses, when a wakeful influence goes abroad over 
the sleeping hemisphere, and all the out-door world are on their 
feet. It is then that the cock first crows, not this time to an- 
nounce the dawn, but like a cheerful watchman speeding the 
course of night. Cattle awake on the meadows; sheep break 



54 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

their fast on dewy hillsides, and change to a new lair among 
the ferns; and houseless men, who have lain down with the 
jowls, open their dim eyes and behold the beauty of the night. 

— Robert Louis Stevenson. 

3. Kipling's story of "The King's Ankus," in the 
Second Jungle Book, contains a paragraph ("He let 
the gold pieces fall," etc.) which uses an extraordinary 
number of nouns and shows how effective they can 
be. The story of "Quiquern," in the same volume, 
affords other examples : e.g. the paragraphs beginning 
"In the winter Kadlu," "Kadlu being a good hunter," 
"The boy learned, too," etc. 

III. Pronouns (85) 

Work through this section with the pupils as an oral 
exercise, writing the illustrative sentences on the 
board and asking the questions given in the text. 
Study with them in the same way the pronouns in 
stanza 5 of " Lochinvar " ; also stanzas 1 and 4. 

IV. Personal Pronouns (86) 

This is an oral class exercise. It leads up naturally 
to the subject of case by showing clearly that pro- 
nouns have different forms for different uses. Point 
out the contrast between the nominative and ob- 
jective forms, although they are not yet named. The 
possessive forms cause no difficulty in their use, except 
in the instance mentioned in the text. " Lochinvar," 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 55 

stanzas 4 and 5, may be used for supplementary work ; 
also stanzas 3 and 7 ; also pp. 8-9. 

This section lays the foundation not only for case, 
but also for subsequent practical work in gender, num- 
ber, and person. 

V. Case (89) 

Having learned earlier what is meant by "subject 
substantive," and having just learned "personal pro- 
nouns," pupils are now ready for the practical applica- 
tion of this knowledge. The purpose of this exercise 
is to show the form and use of the nominative case of 
pronouns. The nominative case is here taken up 
because of its direct relation to the subject substantive. 
Every pupil must learn these forms so thoroughly 
that he will never be in doubt which is which. 

This is an oral exercise. Write on the blackboard 
the two pairs of illustrative sentences, underline the 
pronouns to be studied, and ask such questions as the 
following: What kind of word is "I"? To whom 
does it refer ? What part of the sentence is it ? What 
is the predicate of the sentence ? What is the subject 
of the second sentence ? The predicate ? What word 
in this predicate also denotes the person speaking? 
Could " me " be used as the subject of the first sentence ? 
Which form of the pronoun denoting the person speak- 
ing is used as a subject substantive? What other 
pronouns might be used instead of "me" ? Could 
"I" be used instead of "me"? These questions will 



56 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

lead the minds of the boys and girls to see what is meant 
by case. Repeat the questions with the second pair 
of sentences. If needed, have the pupils study the 
following pairs of sentences. Which forms of the 
pronouns are used as subject substantives? Which 
forms are not ? Could the forms be interchanged ? 

(i) / know Mary. 
Mary knows me. 

(2) We love Carlo. 
Carlo loves us. 

(3) She worked hard. 
The work tired her. 

(4) They saw Frank. 
Frank saw them. 

No mention is made of the case of nouns, because 
the pupils have long been familiar with the possessive 
form, and the nominative and objective cases of nouns 
are always alike and have no practical significance 
until the pupil begins the study of a foreign language. 
The use of the objective (or accusative) case of pro- 
nouns, which is merely named at this stage, will be 
taught later in connection with transitive verbs and 
prepositions. If it is desired to use the term "Accusa- 
tive" instead of "Objective," all that is needed is to 
tell the pupils to use the one term, not the other. 

VI. Right and Wrong in Language (90) 

An oral lesson to be read in class with free discus- 
sion. Its purpose is to interest pupils in grammatical 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 57 

rules by showing what we mean when we say one ex- 
pression is "wrong," another "right." Boys and girls 
will respect grammatical rules and desire to learn 
them when they know that they are not arbitrary 
things, indicating mere fussiness on the part of teacher 
or parent, but guides to one kind of good manners, 
with serious social and business consequences to those 
who neglect them. 

VII. Pronouns as Subjects (91) 
VIII. Pronouns in Compound Subjects (93) 

These very important lessons contain the practical 
application of the grammatical knowledge acquired 
in previous lessons. The statements in bold-faced 
type should be learned verbatim; they have been 
carefully worded for practical usefulness as working 
rules. 

Use the exercises as oral lessons, requiring the 
pupils themselves to think out the correct forms and 
to tell clearly and accurately why they are correct. 
Do not accept lucky guesses. Require pupils to give 
the reasons, expressed in complete sentences, before 
they give the forms. For example, if a pupil is studying 
the last sentence on page 91, he should say: "The 
pronoun to be used is the subject of the omitted predi- 
cate 'will tend the door.' Good speakers and writers 
always use as subjects the nominative forms /, we, 
he, she, they, or who. Therefore the proper form for 



58 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

the blank is 'I.' The speaker means 'I will tend the 
door.'" Help the pupils to understand what words 
are omitted in some of the sentences. 

Important Note 

These exercises, like all subsequent exercises in 
correct usage, should be frequently repeated until 
they are thoroughly mastered and the correct form 
becomes the natural one. Do not let the backward 
pupils escape you. They, too, must learn to speak 
correctly. The true teacher will not be satisfied until 
every pupil's knowledge of grammar functions in his 
habitual speech. 

Herein lies the necessity for much oral repetition of 
correct forms of expressions, and the value of language 
games for young or backward pupils. It is not enough 
that the pupils know which expression is wrong, which 
right. Grammatical knowledge must be supplemented 
by frequent practice ; theory must be followed by 
habit-forming oral exercises. The speech forms habitu- 
ally used by each individual are those which he has 
learned through his ear; therefore it is through the 
ear that correct expressions must be established as 
habits in place of common errors. Grammatical 
knowledge and insight are needed for self-criticism and 
self-direction ; but only the persistent oral repetition 
of the correct form will overcome the habit of using an 
incorrect form. Therefore the pupil must repeat the 
correct expressions until his ear becomes accustomed 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 59 

to them; he must say them to himself many times 
every day until they become fixed in his habits of 
speech. The advocates of formal grammar and the 
advocates of mere language drill are not so far apart as 
they think. They see the opposite sides of the same 
shield. Read again pages 11-13 of this Manual. 

Drill Cards 

An easy and effective way of conducting very fre- 
quent oral reviews at a minimum expenditure of time 
and effort is to use what may be called Drill Cards. 

The materials needed are cards measuring about 
3X5 inches, similar to those used in cataloguing 
libraries. They may be easily obtained at small cost 
from the Library Bureau, which has offices in many 
cities. If cards are not easily procurable, slips of 
paper may be substituted, cut to a size suitable for 
filing away in envelopes or a drawer. 

Write or paste on a card or slip of paper any question 
or exercise or part of an exercise that you wish to review 
often : for example, the first section of Exercise (a) on 
page 91 of the pupils' book. You will soon have an 
assortment of these cards. When the class has a few 
moments to spare, distribute among the pupils at random 
such cards as you wish to review, and require each 
pupil to answer the questions on his card quickly and 
accurately. This repeatedly focuses attention on the 
most important things, without losing any time in 
turning over pages in books to find the desired exercise. 



60 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

It also treats all pupils alike. Experience has shown 
its effectiveness in saving time and keeping pupils 
alert. The reviews should be quick, snappy, and 
frequent. Put on the cards only those things which 
ought to be reviewed often. 

If cards are used, different colors may be employed 
for different parts of speech ; or one color may be used 
for number, another for tense, another for case, etc. 
This will help you to find the cards that you want for a 
particular day, and make it easy to follow a systematic 
plan in review and drill. If you use slips of paper, you 
can reach the same end by marking them with letters 
and numbers, and keeping the different letters in 
separate envelopes. 

IX. Singular and Plural Nouns and Pronouns (95) 

This is an oral exercise. Its purpose is to lay the 
necessary foundation for teaching the agreement of 
verbs with their subjects and of pronouns with their 
antecedents. Fix attention chiefly on (b) and (c), 
which have very practical bearing on what will come 
later. Ask for the number of my, his, Us, our, and 
their, in addition to the words in the list on page 88. 

X. Formation of Plural Nouns (96) 
XI. Dictation Exercise : Singular and Plural Nouns (97) 

These exercises may be omitted in whole or in part 
if your pupils do not need them. They are inserted 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 61 

here because in some schools they will be needed, 
at least in part. If your pupils already form the 
plural of nouns correctly, take up at once the next 
exercise. In most schools it will be desirable to read 
with the class at least (5) and (6). Note in your 
own mind the things particularly needed by your 
pupils, especially those who are backward, and drill 
on these things until you secure 100 per cent of correct- 
ness. Feel free to omit anything which the class has 
already learned well. 

Note on the Possessive 

Your pupils, probably, have long been familiar with 
the use of the apostrophe to denote possession; that 
is, with the possessive (or genitive) case of nouns. If 
they do not know how to form the possessive of both 
singular and plural nouns, you should now teach them 
the following rules : 

1. The possessive (or genitive) of most nouns is 
formed by adding an apostrophe and s. 

Examples: "The boy's coat," "James's hat," "Thomas's 
ball," "Charles's dog," "Dickens's Christmas Carol," "Men's 
shoes." 

2. The possessive (or genitive) of plural nouns that 
end in 5 is formed by adding an apostrophe alone. 

Examples : "Boys' shoes," "Horses' hoofs," "Ladies' gowns," 
"The pupils' books," "The girls' lunch room." 



62 , ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

Pupils may be told to call the possessive the geni- 
tive, if desired, in accordance with the suggestion of 
the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature. 

XII. Singular and Plural Verbs (98) 

The purpose of this oral exercise is to teach that 
verbs, too, are singular or plural. Lead the class 
through the first half of the lesson, writing the first 
pair of sentences on the blackboard and asking such 
questions as the following : In what respect do these 
sentences differ? How many sheep are thought of 
in the first sentence? What word shows this? What 
part of speech is it? What word shows that more 
than one sheep is thought of in the second sentence? 
Do the sentences differ in anything but the verbs? 
What is the number of the verb "is"? of the verb 
"are"? Recall " She is won! we are gone! " (p. 7). 

Have the pupils themselves do sentences 1-6, follow- 
ing the model given in (a). Draw their attention 
to the fact that in verbs an added "s" marks the 
singular number. 

XIII. Changes in Verbs for Number and Person (99) 

Purpose : to make every pupil number-sure in 
verbs. The bold-faced type and the different forms 
of "is" and "make" are to be learned by heart; 
also of "have" and "do." Every pupil must learn 
them so well that they become second nature to him. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 63 

XIV. Agreement of Verb with Its Subject (100) 

This very important lesson applies the grammat- 
ical principles just learned. It shows how to avoid 
that large class of common errors which consist in 
the wrong use of singular and plural verbs. 

Study through with the class the illustrative sen- 
tences on pages 101-102 of their book ; encourage full 
discussion ; and help the pupils to see that the choice 
between a singular and a plural verb depends on the 
sense. A striking illustration of this is found in the 
selection from Stevenson on page 53 ("world are"). 
For more examples of " there was," see "Lochinvar." 

Have the pupils themselves think out the correct 
forms in (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e). Do not let them 
guess. Require them to think out the reasons and to 
state them accurately and completely when called 
for. For example, in doing the first sentence in (a), 
the pupil should say: "The subject noun is 'girls,' 
which is in the plural number. Therefore the verb 
must be plural, and the sentence should be 'There 
are several girls in the party.'" He may give the 
correct sentence first and the reason afterward, unless 
he shows a disposition to guess at the correct form ; 
if he is disposed to guess, require the reason first. 

Drill the class on sentences like the following, in 
which a plural noun comes between the singular subject 
and the verb : 

A bunch of grapes is, etc. 
Each of the sisters was, etc. 



64 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

A string of beads, etc. 
The roar of the waves, etc. 
The noise of automobiles, etc. 

Read again the "Important Note" on page 58 of 
this Manual. 

XV. Contracted Forms (105) 

XVI. Agreement of Verb with Compound Subject (108) 

These lessons extend the work of the preceding 
section so as to cover those very common errors which 
consist in the wrong use of singular and plural verbs 
in contractions and with compound subjects. Have 
the pupils themselves work out the exercises in the 
way indicated in this book, insisting on the reason for 
each correct form in those exercises in which it is asked 
for. 

Require frequent reviews and much practice. See 
" Important Note," page 58. 

XVII. Gender (no) 

This lesson completes the foundation needed for 
teaching the agreement of pronouns with their antece- 
dents. A pronoun in good usage agrees with its 
antecedent in gender as well as in number and person. 
Therefore it is necessary at this point to introduce the 
pupil to gender, which determines the choice of pro- 
noun ; the use of the singular and the plural is a later 
detail. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 65 

The lesson is an easy oral one. After you have led 
the pupils' minds up to the definitions in the usual 
way, let them give their own examples of masculine, 
feminine, and neuter words. Make it plain that 
words like " cousin " and " I " are either masculine or 
feminine. Use also "Lochinvar," stanzas 5, 2, 3, and 6. 

The old term "common gender" is not approved by 
modern grammarians. 

XVIII. Agreement of Pronouns in Gender (in) 

Study through the first part of this lesson with 
the class as an oral exercise, making them see that the 
agreement of a pronoun with its antecedent is simply 
a matter of common sense, determined by the mean- 
ing. Study "Lochinvar," stanzas 5 and 6. Let the 
pupils themselves do (a). Do not let them use " their" 
and "them" in sentences 1 and 10; help them to see 
that the antecedents in those sentences are singular. 

XIX. Gender in Personification (114) 

This exercise may be either oral or written. Make 
it mainly a lesson in composition, subordinating the 
subject of gender. Thus pupils will learn that the 
study of gender is not an end in itself, but only one 
means toward an end — correct speaking and writ- 
ing. Encourage pupils to bring to class examples of 
personification of their own finding. 



66 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

XX. Agreement of Pronouns in Number (116) 

This exercise is designed to show pupils how to avoid 
the errors commonly made in choosing between singular 
and plural pronouns. It is an oral lesson to be worked 
through with the class. Have the pupils tell what 
pronouns should be used in the blanks in (a). To 
prevent guessing and to make even the slower pupils 
see the reason for each pronoun, have the antecedent 
pointed out before the missing pronoun is supplied. 

If some bright pupil asks whether "each," "every 
one," "any one," "every girl," "man after man," 
etc., are not plural in sense and therefore properly re- 
ferred to by plural pronouns (e.g. "Each must take 
their turn"), you may reply that there is something 
of a plural sense in these expressions, which is one 
reason why plural pronouns are so often heard in con- 
nection with them ; but you can easily prove that the 
expressions are really in the singular number and prop- 
erly referred to by singular pronouns. Write the fol- 
lowing sentences on the blackboard and ask which 
form of the verb is the correct one : 

Each (is, are) welcome. 
Any one (knows, know) that. 
Every one (was, were) happy. 
Every girl (has, have) a thimble. 
Man after man (is, are) examined. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 67 

This will show that the expressions under discussion 
are always followed by singular verbs and that, there- 
fore, pronouns standing for them should be singular, 
too. See " Important Note," page 58. 

XXI. Ambiguous Pronouns (118) 

Study this exercise through with the pupils, encourag- 
ing full discussion of the probable meaning of the sen- 
tences in (a). After the sentences have been studied 
and improved orally, they should be written out. 



CHAPTER FIVE 
LETTER WRITING 

This chapter contains all the common forms of 
letters that pupils of twelve to sixteen years of age will 
have occasion to use. Have pupils apply these forms 
in writing letters for particular purposes, letters that 
their needs make necessary, such as: invitations to 
school functions and personal entertainments; re- 
quests for samples for school exhibits ; or for folders 
or pictures that you may need for geography or history 
work; letters to pupils in other grades or schools for 
the sake of giving or asking information that will be 
of interest. 

A class in New England and one in the Middle West 
acquired valuable first-hand information in history 
and geography by the exchange of letters. A class 
in England and a class in America kept up a brisk 
correspondence for a year. 

The primary purpose of all these letter- writing plans, 
which are but examples of the many that may be used, 
is to provide a definite, practical, and interesting motive 
for writing. To make letter writing really worth while, 
pupils must write letters to real people, letters that 

68 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 69 

will be delivered to the persons addressed, letters 
that will be gladly received, read with interest, and 
carefully answered. Writing letters for the teacher 
and her waste basket can at best do little more than 
teach mechanical form. 

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR REAL LETTERS 

Pupils in other schools would be glad to receive 
letters telling about the following matters : 

1. School athletics — games, sports, interscholastic 
games and meets. 

2. Industrial work — manual training, farming, 
sewing, cooking. 

3. Home work — what the pupils are doing to help 
at home. What they are doing for their country. 

4. Collections pupils have made or are making — 
stamps, flowers, pictures, autographs, coins, books, etc. 

5. Places of historic interest in the neighborhood. 
Describe one such place in detail, telling why it is 
famous. Use pictures to illustrate. 

6. Chief industries of the neighborhood. Describe 
one. Illustrate with pictures or samples of the prod- 
uct described. 

7. What pupils are planning to do or to be when 
school days are over. How they are preparing for 
that future. 

8. How they earn money. How they save money. 

9. What they are doing to beautify their home, 
school, or neighborhood. 



CHAPTER SIX 
MODIFIERS; ADJECTIVES; ADVERBS 
Purpose of the Chapter 
Learning what is meant by a modifier is the neces- 
sary preparation for understanding adjectives, adverbs, 
and most phrases and clauses. In fact, in speaking 
and writing there is more frequent need of noting that 
certain words and groups of words are modifiers than 
there is of noting the different kinds of modifiers, 
necessary as these distinctions sometimes are. Our 
speech is made up mainly of substantives, verbs, and 
modifiers ; and having learned to use nouns, pro- 
nouns, and the simpler forms of verbs, pupils must 
now acquire a clear understanding of what modifiers 
are and how they may be used effectively and correctly. 

I. Apposition (131) 

Using a noun in apposition is the simplest, and per- 
haps the oldest, way of modifying the meaning of a 
word. This lesson marks the beginning of a study 
of modifiers which will eventually lead to a full under- 
standing . of their significance and importance, and 
greatly improve the interest and accuracy of the pupils' 

oral and written language. 

70 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 71 

After working through the first part of the lesson in 
the usual way, have the pupils study (a) orally as 
directed in their book. Insist on their giving facts 
and reasons in complete statements. Encourage 
the pupils to suggest additional examples of useful 
apposition. Nouns may be written on the black- 
board in sentences, and interesting or necessary appos- 
itives added by the class. 

After (a) has been studied orally, it should be used 
as a dictation exercise. 

II. What a Modifier Is (132) 

This is an oral lesson to be studied with the pupils. 
Read a few additional paragraphs from "The Trage- 
dies of the Nests." After the class has taken note of 
the topic sentence given in their book, write on the 
blackboard the bare sentence, "Birds build" ; then let 
the pupils improve it, adding one modifier at a time, the 
pupil who suggests a modifier telling why it is added, 
and you writing each newly modified sentence below 
the last one (as on page 133 of the pupil's book). 
After Burroughs' sentence has been studied and built 
up by the pupils, let them construct other interesting 
sentences by adding other modifying words and groups 
of words to the same skeleton, "Birds build." En- 
courage discussion of the appropriateness and interest 
of the suggested modifiers. 

Take time enough to do this important fundamental 
work so well that every pupil will clearly perceive the 



72 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

nature and use of a modifier. Do not let the more 
capable pupils take more than their share of the time. 
Encourage the diffident and slow, and insist that they 
do even more than their share; they need it most. 
The exercise may be constantly and profitably varied 
and repeated by using different skeleton sentences, 
as on page 137 of the pupil's book. Help the pupil 
who is slow to understand. 

III. Studying Sentences for Modifiers (134) 

The purpose of this exercise is to test and reenforce 
the pupil's understanding of what a modifier is. The 
sentences selected have sufficient difficulty to make 
the test a real one. Their analysis requires thought. 
Let the pupils themselves analyze the sentences orally, 
following the model given in their book. After the 
exercise has been done orally, it should be written in 
the manner suggested. 

Have the pupils analyze in the same way sentences 
selected from their own writing. 

IV. Using Modifiers (136) 

The last exercises have taught the nature of modi- 
fiers; the purpose of this one is to show their very 
great importance. Work through the lesson orally 
with the class, without distinguishing between the dif- 
ferent kinds of modifiers, except to note that some are 
single words and some are groups of words. Write 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 73 

on the board skeleton sentences consisting of subject 
substantive, verb, and in some cases direct objects 
(which need not be explained now) ; then let the class 
make interesting, vivid sentences from these skele- 
tons. Encourage competition. Do not let the bright 
pupils have more than their share of the time. If 
possible, let the class do (b) before their attention has 
been drawn to (c). 

Supplement (6) and (c) by picking out the basic 
words of interesting sentences which you or the pupils 
may select; then let pupils who have not seen the 
original sentences build interesting sentences from 
the basic words. Write the original sentence under 
the sentences which they have made, and have them 
point out its modifiers. 

Encourage competition in (d), which may be either 
an oral or a written exercise. Write on the board 
the most interesting sentences made from these 
skeletons. This is an exercise in thinking as well 
as in expression — in composition as well as in gram- 
mar. 

To carry this exercise still further, give out as a prob- 
lem some skeleton sentence like "Boys and girls 
ran," taken from an English classic. Let each pupil 
bring to class next day his best effort in enlarging it. 
Write on the blackboard the sentences that the class 
thinks particularly successful, and compare with the 
original sentence. Encourage pupils to write in verse, 
if they wish. 



74 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

V. Position of Modifiers (138) 

•The purpose of this lesson is to show the necessity 
of placing modifiers in the right places. Work through 
the lesson with the pupils in the manner indicated 
in their book. After (b), (c), and (d) have been studied 
through orally, they should be written. 

Encourage pupils to bring to class examples of mis- 
placed modifiers which they may find in advertisements 
or elsewhere. 

VI. Adjectives (140) 

Having learned the nature and importance of modi- 
fiers, pupils are now ready to study those more tech- 
nical matters which relate to different kinds of modifiers 
and which must be learned by one who wishes to avoid 
common errors. They already know something of 
the nature and importance of descriptive adjectives. 
The purpose of this exercise is to enlarge their knowl- 
edge of what an adjective is. 

Adjectives and adverbs are first presented in con- 
trast, which is the easiest way to teach the differences 
between them. Then the distinction between the 
two important kinds of adjectives — descriptive and 
limiting — is dwelt on, in order that the pupil may 
learn to recognize not only easy descriptive adjectives, 
but the more difficult limiting adjectives. He must 
feel the adjective function in "this," "an/ 
as clearly as he feels it in "blue." 






ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 75 

In (a) get from the pupils as long lists of adjectives 
as possible. This not only helps to make clear the 
nature of adjectives, but it helps to enlarge each pupil's 
working vocabulary and prepares the way for exercises 
in description. Have the longest list written on the 
board, and add to it the adjectives suggested by other 
children. The lists may be left on the board and pupils 
encouraged to add to them from time to time. 

Supplementary Work 

1. The work in (a) may be extended by writing 
other nouns on the board and having pupils make lists 
of adjectives that might be used with them. Select 
nouns with which a large variety of adjectives may be 
used. 

2. A competition or game may be made of (a), as 
suggested for Chapter Two, XI, e. See page 35 of 
this Manual. 

3. The work in (c) may be extended to any desired 
extent by writing on the board other selections contain- 
ing adjectives, chosen from pupils' compositions or 
standard literature ; or reading books may be brought 
into class and selections studied for adjectives. 

4. Copy on the blackboard some paragraphs or 
sentences from the pupils' own compositions, substitut- 
ing blanks for such adjectives as it is possible to supply 
from the context. Have each pupil write down in 
order the adjectives with which he would till the blanks, 
so that if called on he may read the selection aloud, 



76 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

supplying the adjectives from his list. Then, as a 
class exercise, number the blanks, and write on the 
board under each number all the adjectives which the 
class can suggest for that blank, perhaps adding some 
of your own. Let the fitness of the adjectives be 
freely discussed, and the class decide which is best for 
the author's purpose. After all the blanks have been 
rilled, the adjectives chosen by the class may be com- 
pared with those used by the original author. Can 
any sentences be improved by adding adjectives? 
The main thing for the pupils to realize is the 
great part that adjectives play in conveying mental 
pictures and in stirring feelings, and the consequent 
importance of choosing them with discriminating 
care. Such exercises foster an interest in words, and 
develop the habit of noting their precise meanings and 
of choosing those which will give the most vivid and 
accurate mental pictures. 

5. The following selections may be used for similar 
exercises in seeking the most appropriate adjectives 
and thus enlarging one's working vocabulary : 

(a) In a long ramble on a fine autumnal day, Rip had un- 
consciously scrambled to one of the highest parts of the Kaatskill 
mountains. He was after his favorite sport of squirrel-shooting, 
and the still solitudes had echoed and reechoed with the reports 
of his gun. Panting and fatigued, he threw himself, late in 
the afternoon, on a green knoll, covered with mountain herb- 
age, that crowned the brow of a precipice. From an open- 
ing between the trees he could overlook all the lower country 
for many a mile of rich woodland. He saw at a distance the 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 77 

lordly Hudson, far, far below him, moving on its silent but 
majestic course, with the reflection of a purple cloud, or the 
sail of a lagging bark, here and there sleeping on its glassy 
bosom, and at last losing itself in the blue highlands. 

— Washington Irving. 

(b) Ichabod Crane was tall, but exceedingly lank, with narrow 
shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out 
of his sleeves, feet that might have served for shovels, and his 
whole frame most loosely hung together. His head was small, 
and flat at top, with huge ears, large green glassy eyes, and a 
long snipe nose, so that it looked like a weathercock perched 
upon his spindle neck, to tell which way the wind blew. To 
see him striding along the profile of a hill on a windy day, with 
his clothes bagging and fluttering about him, one might have 
mistaken him for the genius of famine descending upon earth, 
or some scarecrow, eloped from a cornfield. 

— Washington Irving. 

(c) The school-house stood in a rather lonely but pleasant 
situation, just at the foot of a woody hill, with a brook running 
close by, and a formidable birch-tree growing at one end of it. 
From hence the low murmur of his pupils' voices, conning over 
their lessons, might be heard in a drowsy summer's day, like 
the hum of a bee-hive ; interrupted now and then by the au- 
thoritative voice of the master, in the tone of menace or com- 
mand; or, peradventure, by the appalling sound of the birch, 
as he urged some tardy loiterer along the flowery path of knowl- 
edge. Truth to say, he was a conscientious man, and ever 
bore in mind the golden maxim, "Spare the rod and spoil the 
child." 

— Washington Irving. 

(d) "He was a comely, handsome fellow, perfectly well made, 
with straight strong limbs, not too large; tall and well-shaped, 



78 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

and, as I reckon, about twenty-six years of age. He had a very 
good countenance, not a fierce and surly aspect, but seemed to 
have something very manly in his face, and yet he had all the 
sweetness and softness of a European in his countenance too, 
especially when he smiled. His hair was long and black, not 
curled like wool ; his forehead very high and large, and a great 
vivacity and sparkling sharpness in his eyes. 

— Daniel Defoe : " Robinson Crusoe." 

(e) "It is a pleasing sight, of a Sunday morning, when the bell 
is sending its sober melody across the quiet fields, to behold 
peasantry in their best finery, with ruddy faces and modest cheer- 
fulness, thronging tranquilly along the green lanes to church. 

— Washington Irving. 

(/) The stars were clear, coloured, and jewel-like, but not 
frosty. A faint silvery vapour stood for the Milky Way. All 
round me the black fir-points stood upright and stock-still. I 
could hear my donkey steadily munching at the sward; but 
there was not another sound, save the indescribable quiet talk 
of the runnel over the stones. 

— Robert Louis Stevenson. 

(g) In my walk yesterday forenoon I passed an old house 
which seemed to be quite deserted. It was a two-story, wooden 
house, dark and weather-beaten. The front windows, some of 
them, were shattered and open, and others were boarded up. 
Trees and shrubbery were growing neglected, so as quite to block 
up the lower part. There was an aged barn near at hand, so 
ruinous that it had been necessary to prop it up. There were 
two old carts, both of which had lost a wheel. Everything was 
in keeping. At first I supposed that there would be no inhabit- 
ants in such a dilapidated place ; but, passing on, I looked back, 
and saw a decrepit and infirm old man at the angle of the house, 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 79 

its fit occupant. The grass, however, was very green and beauti- 
ful around this dwelling, and, the sunshine falling brightly on it, 
the whole effect was cheerful and pleasant. 

— Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

(h) I found a small turtle by the roadside, where he had crept 
to warm himself in the genial sunshine. He had a sable back, 
and underneath his shell was yellow, and at the edges bright 
scarlet. His head, tail, and claws were striped yellow, black, and 
red. He withdrew himself as far as he possibly could into his 
shell, and absolutely refused to peep out, even when I put him 
into the water. 

— Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

5. Let the pupils read descriptive paragraphs from 
their readers, sentence by sentence, and try to sub- 
stitute better adjectives than those used by the writer. 

VII. Articles (143) 

This exercise is designed to show pupils how to choose 
between a and an, and between a (an), the, and no 
article. It is an oral lesson to be worked through with 
the pupils. Make it clear that the choice between a 
and an is determined by sound, not spelling. Help 
even the less capable pupils to see the difference in 
meaning in the sentences in (b). See "Important 
Note," page 58. 

VIII. Singular and Plural Adjectives (145) 

This exercise is designed to teach pupils to avoid 
common errors in the use of plural adjectives and 
other words associated with " sort " and " kind." It 



80 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

is an oral exercise ; but parts of it may be written if 
desired. See " Important Note," page 58. 

IX. Adverbs (147) 

This is an oral exercise to be studied through with 
the class. Its purpose is to drive home the nature 
and importance of adverbs. The classification of 
adverbs into adverbs of manner, time, place, and de- 
gree is helpful to some pupils. 

In (a), (b), and (c) get from the pupils as long lists 
of adverbs as possible, to make clear the nature of 
adverbs, to enlarge the pupil's vocabulary, and to pre- 
pare for later exercises in composition. 

After the lesson has been studied orally, parts of it 
may be written. Use these lists as you did the lists of 
verbs and adjectives. See pages 35 and 75 of this 
Manual. 

In (d) before having the pupils make sentences, 
let them make lists of verbs, adjectives, or other ad- 
verbs that the given adverbs might modify. 

X. The Form of Adverbs (151) 

Form is always easier than function ; therefore pupils 
sometimes try to save themselves the trouble of think- 
ing by adopting as a working rule, "An adverb ends 
in ly." To save them from this error, the preceding 
exercise not only emphasized function as the test of 
an adverb, but it also brought into prominence such 
adverbs as "fast," "afoot," "here," "abroad," "now," 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 81 

"often," "very," "more," and many others that do 
not end in "ly." In this exercise, emphasize the fact 
that adverbs of manner are freely formed by adding 
"ly" to adjectives, but draw attention at the same 
time to "lively," "friendly," "stately," "queenly," and 
other words which end in "ly" without being adverbs. 

Dwell on the fact that good, sure, easy, and bad are 
never used as adverbs by good speakers and writers. 
To this list may be added any words which your pupils 
habitually misuse as adverbs. 

Adjectives used as adverbs contrary to present us- 
age are often found in the books read in schools. 
The explanation is that adjectives used as adverbs 
are frequent in the literature of the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries: as, "Then was the king exceed- 
ing glad" (Dan. vi. 23); "The sea went dreadful 
high" (Robinson Crusoe). They also occur somewhat 
freely in modern poetry. In modern literary prose 
they are seldom used, good writers preferring the ad- 
verbial forms in "ly," except in a few cases which must 
be learned by observation: as, "Pitch dark"; "He 
ran fast"; " Come quick" ; "Stand right ";" I bought 
it cheap." 

Supplementary Work 

1. Mention one by one the following adjectives 
and have the pupils give quickly the corresponding 
adverbial expression : 

nice easy friendly stately 

good fast sudden steady 



82 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 



beautiful 


slow 


careful 


queenly 


lively 


brave 


sure 


polite 


pleasant 


bad 


near 


quiet 


bright 


clumsy 


heavy 


ungainly 



Add to this list any words which your pupils misuse 
as adverbs. 

2. Let several compositions by pupils be copied 
on the board, and studied by the class with respect 
to adverbs. Have the class make suggestions for 
correcting, substituting, or adding adverbs. 

3. Copy on the blackboard some paragraphs or 
sentences from the pupils' own compositions, sub- 
stituting blanks for such adverbs as it is possible to 
supply from the context. Have each pupil write down 
in order the adverbs with which he would fill the blanks, 
so that if called on he may read the selection aloud, 
supplying the adverbs from his list. Then, as a class 
exercise, number the blanks, and write on the board 
under each number all the adverbs which the class 
can suggest for that blank, perhaps adding some of 
your own. Let the fitness of the adverbs be freely 
discussed, and the class decide which is best for the 
author's purpose. After all the blanks have been filled, 
the adverbs chosen by the class may be compared with 
those used by the original author. 

4. The following selection (also the selection from 
Hawthorne on page 105) may be used for a similar 
exercise in seeking the most appropriate adverb : 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 83 

Looking out on the garden in front of my residence, I observed 
a robin alight on a small tree. It was midwinter, and the ground 
was covered with about a foot of light snow. A cat came 
stealthily along, with difficulty making her way through the snow 
until within about three feet of the tree where the bird was. The 
robin was sluggishly resting on a twig distant three feet from the 
surface of snow. The cat, owing to the softness of the snow, 
could not well venture to make a spring. She crouched down 
and at first gently stirred herself, evidently with the purpose of 
causing the bird to move. The first attempt failed. She again 
more actively stirred herself by a shaking motion ; but she again 
failed. Then she stirred herself vigorously again and started 
the bird, which flew about fifty feet away, and alighted on a small 
low bush on the northern side of a close boarded fence. The cat 
keenly watched the flight and the alighting of the bird. Then 
as quickly as she could cross through the snow, she took a circuit 
of about one hundred feet, all the while watching the place where 
the bird was, and covering her march by making use of every 
available bush to hide her. When out of range of the bird's 
vision, she more actively made for the fence, leaped over it to the 
southern side, and moved along the southern side of it. Pres- 
ently she jumped on it, calculating her distance so accurately 
that she came within a foot of the bush where the bird was, and 
at once sprang. She missed her prey, but I thought she proved 
herself a cunning hunter. 

XI. Comparative and Superlative (154) 

XII. Forming the Comparative and Superlative (156) 

In working over these lessons with the class as 
outlined in the pupil's book, emphasize (1) the 
general method ("that sounds best") ; (2) the method 



84 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

with adverbs ending in "ly"; and (3) the special 
words. 

In (a), have the pupils compare as many additional 
adjectives and adverbs as you wish. 

XIII. Using the Comparative and the Superlative (157) 

This exercise explains in the simplest way possible 
those points in the use of the comparative and superla- 
tive degrees which puzzle many persons. It lays the 
emphasis where it belongs — on sense, not rules. 

It is not true that good speakers never use the super- 
lative degree when only two things are compared; 
therefore we are not justified in insisting that pupils 
must always use the comparative degree when only 
two things are compared. To insist on a hard and 
fast rule would be an illustration of what James 
Russell Lowell meant by "attempts to starch and 
iron out our language." The wording of the text 
in the pupil's book accurately presents the trend of 
good usage without overstating it. 

Insist that pupils tell why the sentences in (c) are 
wrong before they try to correct them. The sen- 
tences should read : 

(1) This dress is the one I like best of all (or, of all that I 
have). (2) I like it better than any other I have. (3) My 
mother, too, likes it best of all. 

(4) New York is more crowded than any other city in Amer- 
ica. (5) Paris is the most crowded city in France (or, most 
crowded of the French cities, or, of all cities in France). 

(6) Snowdrop was fairer than any other. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 85 

After the lesson has been studied through with the 
class orally, parts of it may be written. 

XIV. Kipling on " Elegant " Scenery (160) 

This exercise teaches itself. In (a) get from the 
pupils as long a list of adjectives as possible. Let 
them also suggest adjectives that Kipling might have 
used instead of "big," "winding," "no," "roaring," 
"honey-colored," and "highest," and discuss their 
appropriateness and effect. 

XV. Overworked Adjectives (163) 

XVI. More Adjectives Often Misused (166) 

XVII. Some Adjectives and Adverbs Often Confounded 

(168) 

XVIII. Double Negatives (169) 

Use these last four exercises according to the actual 
needs of your pupils. Do not hesitate to pass over 
lightly any parts that they already know ; be sure to 
dwell on words which they habitually overwork or 
misuse. Add freely any overworked or misused ad- 
jectives or adverbs not mentioned in the text, and 
construct exercises on them. 

Help the pupil positively as well as negatively; 
show him what to say as well as what not to say. For 
example, don't stop with telling him not to say "an 
awful mistake," and don't be satisfied with suggest- 
ing a single substitute for "awful." Have the class 



86 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

suggest other possible substitutes, and add to the list 
yourself. Keep such lists on the board before the eyes 
of the pupils. Write the overworked word at the top 
of the list, draw a line through it, and write the possible 
substitutes underneath. Get from the pupils as long 
lists as possible. Encourage competition in finding 
adjectives for the nouns in (e), and proper substitutes 
for the overworked adjectives in (/). 
Read again the " Important Note," page 58. 



CHAPTER SEVEN 

THE CHOICE OF WORDS 

The study of this whole chapter should arouse keen 
interest in words as vehicles. of expression, and create 
a desire on the part of the pupils to enrich their vocabu- 
lary with new words. The habit of appropriating new 
words is a valuable one and is not difficult to form. 

I. Importance of a Large Vocabulary (171) 

After studying the lesson in their book with the 
pupils, let them look through any printed page to find 
all the words the meaning of which they know, but 
which they do not use. Why do they not use these 
words ? 

Let a pupil read the selection again, substituting 
his own words for the words that are not in his speak- 
ing vocabulary. Let the rest of the class decide which 
are better — the words used in the selection or the 
pupil's substitutes. As a pupil frequently has to use 
several words, in some cases even a long clause or 
sentence, in place of one good word, the need of a large 
vocabulary is made a personal, real motive that will 
urge pupils to intelligent word study and mastery. 

Such exercises will reveal to the pupils impressively 
the wealth of words that they are not appropriating 

87 



88 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

to their use. Encourage them to adopt new words. 
It may help to ask periodically — perhaps every week 
— for new words that each pupil has adopted into his 
vocabulary within the week. 

II. Synonyms (172) 

This oral lesson may be supplemented by a written 
lesson in which the children are asked to write a con- 
nected exercise — a story or description — using several 
synonyms for one word. In such an exercise have 
them use synonyms of words that are commonly mis- 
used, or used too much : for example, 

1. Write a conversation in which you use at least five syn- 
onyms for said . 

2. Write a description in which you use at least five syn- 
onyms for lovely. 

This may be extended to other words overworked by 
your pupils. 

III. Finding Synonyms (173) 

The immediate purpose of this lesson is to increase 
the pupil's vocabulary, but in doing this, something 
even more important is accomplished ; for every new 
word means a new idea, or a new grasp of an old idea, 
or a more accurate distinction of ideas. 

The test of the pupil's acquisition of new ideas as 
well as new words will be found in Exercises (c) and (d). 
The connected sentences about the knight will reveal 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 89 

either a sympathetic understanding of the subject, or 
the perfunctory act of grouping sentences. 

The reading of Tennyson's "Sir Galahad" will do 
much to prepare the pupils for an appreciative per- 
formance of the exercise. 

If possible, introduce your pupils to such useful 
books as Soule's " Synonyms," Roget's "Thesaurus 
of English Words," and Putnam's " Word Book." 

IV. Using the Most Appropriate Word (176) 

Supplement this oral lesson by a written exercise 
in which the pupils are asked to write connected sen- 
tences, using one or more synonyms from each list 
given. 

Following is an illustration of such an exercise : 

I strolled through the woods one day, listening to the music 
of the forest. The brook murmured over the white pebbles. 
The wind sighed in the tree-tops. The little leaves whispered 
together. 

Suddenly a deer bounded through the woods. Two dogs 
in hot pursuit dashed after him. A hunter following shouted 
and hallooed to his dogs to urge them on. 

The forest peace was shattered. 

V. Words of Special Association (177) 

VI. Words Denoting Different Degrees (177) 

These oral exercises are to be discussed freely with 
pupils. In connection with these exercises dictionaries 



90 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

should be in constant use. Every exercise ought 
to result in adding many words to each pupil's 
vocabulary. 

VII. Antonyms (179) 

VIII. Studying Sentences for Antonyms (179) 

The above two exercises are parts of one lesson. 

Study the first with the pupils to insure their under- 
standing of the term " antonym." 

The purpose of Exercise VIII is to teach the effective 
use of antonyms in giving force and vividness to lan- 
guage. In reading the quotations given in their books, 
the pupils must feel and express this force and vivid- 
ness which the antonyms represent. 

This means that they must: (1) form a clear mental 
picture, and (2) give appropriate emphasis to words, 
so that the hearer will form a mental picture similar 
to their own. Facial expression and gestures may be 
used as effective aids to the voice. 

Help the pupils by reading some of the quotations 
for them, and questioning : as, (1) Could you actually 
see the French flag sink down, down, down that lofty 
flagstaff ? Could you see the American flag mounting 
up, up, up ? Which seemed to droop in your mental 
picture? Which seemed to ripple in triumph? Read 
the quotations so that I may see what you see. 

Since antonyms are used to make the hearer or 
reader see more clearly and feel more deeply, their 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 91 

effectiveness may be tested by the pupil's response 
to the contrasts. Test him by asking such questions 
as these : (3) What do you see when I say Youth ? 
Age ? How do you feel when I say nimble ? Lame? 



LX. Finding Antonyms (181) 

This lesson is not given merely to have the pupils 
use the given antonyms. These have long been com- 
mon words in their vocabularies. First year children 
can give such sentences as, Sugar is sweet ; vinegar 
is sour. 

Grammar grade children should strive to give 
thoughtful, worth-while sentences. Therefore they 
should study the models and try to approach them. 
Suggest that they write some original proverbs. Keep 
a collection of the best. Here are some original sen- 
tences as types: 

A true friend makes a generous enemy. 
Better be poor in money and rich in friends. 
Order is peace; disorder is war. 
Light for work; darkness for rest. 

X. Words Whose Sounds Suggest Their Meaning (182) 

The oral work in this exercise may be supplemented 
by a written lesson. After studying (b), have the 
pupils write a connected story or description using as 



92 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

many animal cries as possible. The following may 
prove suggestive beginnings : 

i. I was awakened by the most surprising noise. 

2. All the 1 animals on the farm met to express their ideas 
of Thanksgiving. 

3. I once tried to spend a quiet day on my grandfather's 
farm. 

4. The animals in the barnyard went on strike last summer. 

5. One day I ran over an old duck with my automobile. 
That night I had a frightful dream. 

XL Studying Selections for Fitting Words (184) 

XII. Studying Selections for Words Arousing Feeling 

(188) 

Have pupils make similar analytical studies of selec- 
tions in their readers. The following poems offer 
many fine opportunities for such studies : 

The Bugle Song Tennyson 

To a Waterfowl Bryant 

Old Ironsides Holmes 

The Wreck of the Hesperus Longfellow 

The Battle Hymn of the Republic Julia Ward Howe 

Song of the Chattahooche Sidney Lanier 

The Brook Tennyson 

XIII. Thinking of the Right Word (189) 

XIV. The Game of Tracking Words (191) 

If you see that the pupils put into practice these 
plans of thinking of the right word, or of "tracking" 
it until they find it, — doing a little of this work every 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 93 

day — you will accomplish much more than the build- 
ing up of a good vocabulary for your pupils. You 
will teach them lessons of study and research that will 
be of the utmost value in the preparation of all school 
work. You will establish habits of steadfastness that 
will influence their whole life. 

XV. Some Common Synonyms and Antonyms (193) 

Do not think that the completion of the few exercises 
given or suggested in this lesson ends its usefulness. 
These lists are to be referred to again and again. Going 
back to these lists for help in oral and written compo- 
sition should become a habit. Foster this habit by 
making occasions for the frequent use of the lists. 



CHAPTER EIGHT 

VERBS 

The changes in verbs for number and person have 
been taught in Chapter Four. The purpose of this 
chapter is to present, in the simplest and most inter- 
esting manner possible, those remaining facts about 
the English verb that are indispensable for one who 
would speak and write correctly. 

I. Verb Phrases (206) 

This lesson teaches itself. Let the pupils them- 
selves study the verb phrases in (a), following the 
model in their book. In (b) get from the pupils as 
long a list of verb phrases for each blank as possible. 
The exercises may be written after they have been 
done orally. 

Have the pupils point out the verb phrases in some 
of their own sentences. 

II. Transitive Verbs. Direct Objects. (210) 

Study this important lesson through with the pupils, 
leading their minds up to the definitions by writing 
the lines from Browning on the blackboard and asking 
such questions as these : What actions did the rats 

94 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 95 

perform? What was directly affected by the fight- 
ing? by the killing? by the biting? What did the 
rats eat? What did they lick? What two things 
were involved in the fighting? (The rats and the 
dogs.) What things were involved in the killing? in 
the biting, eating, and licking? What part in each 
action did the rats have? (They did it; they were 
the doers.) What part in the killing did the cats 
have ? (They were affected by it ; they were the 
receivers of the action.) What was affected by or 
received the fighting, biting, eating, and licking? 
Does the action expressed by any one of these verbs 
stop with the doer ? (No ; it passes over to a receiver, 
a person or thing affected by it.) Such questions help 
the pupils to grasp the substance of the definition. 

There are several objections to defining a transitive 
verb as "a verb that takes a direct object." In the 
first place, that definition is true only of the active 
voice ; yet all verbs in the passive voice are transitive 
also. In the second place, it does not give pupils 
much help in distinguishing direct objects from pred- 
icate nouns, as in the sentences, "Wilson wrote his- 
tory" and "Wilson became President." In the third 
place, it leaves unexplained the term "transitive," 
which is universally used. The definition should point 
to the intrinsic character of the verb, give real help to 
the student, and be always true. In course of time, 
pupils properly taught will come to recognize instantly 
a transitive verb with a direct object as distinguished 



q6 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

from a linking verb with a predicate word. Boys 
and girls must learn to see this distinction clearly be- 
fore they can be sure of avoiding the very common 
errors discussed in Sections IV, X, and XII. 

Dwell on compound direct objects. This lays the 
foundation for the practical work in IV (214). 

III. Studying Sentences for Direct Objects (212) 

The purpose of this exercise is to test and strengthen 
the pupils' understanding of the nature and use of 
transitive verbs and direct objects. 

In (a), (b), and (c) require variety and interest in 
the sentences made by the pupils. Get as many 
interesting sentences from them as you can, writing 
the best of them on the board. Let them use as many 
appropriate modifiers as they wish in any part of the 
sentence. 

When the pupils point out the direct objects in (d), 
have them follow the model given at the beginning of 
the lesson. 

As supplementary work have the pupils point out, 
in the same way; the direct objects in sentences selected 
from their own writing. 

IV. Using Pronouns as Direct Objects (214) 

This exercise contains the practical application of 
what has just been learned. 

In doing (a) require the pupils to give in complete 
statements the reason for each correct form before 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 97 

giving the form itself; this prevents guessing, and 
helps to fix in the mind what the lesson is designed to 
teach. For example, a pupil studying the first sen- 
tence should say : "The pronoun to be used is one of 
the direct objects of the transitive verb 'met.' When 
a pronoun is used as a direct object, good writers and 
speakers always use the objective case. Therefore 
the sentence should be, ' Jessie met Stanton and me 
down town.'" 

Help the pupils to see that — 

In (9) whom is the direct object of can trust; him 
is the direct object of "I can not trust" omitted and 
understood. 

In (11) they is the subject of must stay. 

In (12) them is the direct object of will keep. 

In (17) whomever is the direct object of to elect 
understood. The entire clause is the direct object of 
"elect" ; but it is not necessary to dwell on this at this 
point. 

In (18) whoever is the subject of did. 

Extend this kind of study to sentences in which 
the pupils themselves have misused nominative forms 
as direct objects. 

Have the correct sentences read aloud again and 
again to train the ear. Keep typical correct sentences 
before the pupils on the blackboard. Spend as much 
time on this lesson as may be necessary, and come 
back to it again and again until it is no longer needed. 
See "Important Note," page 58. 



98 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

V. Indirect Objects (216) 

This lesson lays the foundation for the practical 
work in the next section. It is an oral lesson to be 
studied through with the pupils, after which (a) and 
(b) may be written, if desired. Draw attention to 
the case of a pronoun used as an indirect object, and 
ask whether the nominative case might be used in- 
stead. This will lead the minds of the pupils straight 
to the next lesson. 

VI. Using Pronouns as Indirect Objects (218) 

This section contains the practical application of the 
formal grammar learned in the last lesson. 

Require the pupils to give the reason for each 
correct form before giving the form itself. A pupil 
studying the first sentence in (a) should say: "The 
pronoun to be used is the indirect object of 'read,' 
which has 'poem' as its direct object. An indirect 
object should be in the objective case. Therefore 
the sentence should be, 'Please read us children a 
poem."' Point out that "children" is in apposition 
with "us." 

Have the pupils study in the same way any sen- 
tences of their own in which they have misused nomi- 
native forms of pronouns as indirect objects. Train 
the ear to the correct forms by having them frequently 
read aloud. Remember what has been said on page 1 1 
about the treatment of common errors. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD • 99 

VII. Intransitive Verbs (219) 

Having learned the nature of transitive verbs and 
the correct use of direct and indirect objects, the 
pupil must now study the nature of intransitive verbs 
and thus lay the foundation for understanding the 
correct use of predicate nouns, pronouns, and adjec- 
tives, as distinguished from direct objects on the one 
hand and adverbs on the other. Failure to under- 
stand and observe the distinction between direct 
objects, predicate pronouns, predicate adjectives, and 
adverbs is the cause of a large number of common 
errors. The study of intransitive verbs incidentally 
helps to make clear the distinction between lie and 
lay, rise and raise, sit and set. 

Lead the pupils up to the definition by writing on 
the blackboard lines 6, 7, 8, and 11 (at least) from the 
stanza about Sir Galahad, and asking such questions 
as these : What action is asserted of the hard brands ? 
Do they "shiver" any person or thing? Is any person 
or thing except the subject affected by the shivering ? 
Does the action expressed by the verb pass over from 
the doer to a receiver? or does it involve only the 
doer? Ask similar questions about "crack," "fly," 
"reel," and "fall." 

In (a) insist on complete statements of reasons, to 
fix the distinctions in mind and prevent guessing. 
For example, a pupil should say: "'Comes' denotes 
an action that does not pass over from the doer, 



IOO ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

'rainbow,' to a receiver; therefore it is intransitive." 
Another pupil should say: "'Exalteth' denotes an 
action that passes over from the doer, 'righteousness', 
to a receiver, ' nation ' ; therefore it is transitive, with 
'nation' as its direct object." 

In (b) insist on interesting sentences, as an exercise 
in thinking and composing. 

VIII. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Often 
Confounded (221) 

This lesson teaches itself and calls for some reso- 
lute memorizing of forms and meanings. After the 
pupils have learned the meanings of the different 
forms, have them work through the exercises, giving 
reasons in complete statements. 

Remember the "Important Note" on page 58. 

LX. Linking Verbs (226) 

Intransitive verbs are of two kinds, complete verbs 
and linking verbs. This distinction is of great prac- 
tical importance; it explains why it is correct to say 
"She dresses beautifully," but wrong to say "She 
looks beautifully," why we say "I felt fine" but not 
"I played fine," and why good speakers do not say 
"It was me," though they often say " It pleased me." 

Study the lesson through with the pupils orally, 
using the blackboard and the method of study outlined 
in the pupil's book. Dwell on the difference between 
direct objects and the words that follow linking verbs. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 101 

Have the pupils learn the list of common linking verbs. 
Use (b), (c), and (d) as exercises in building up inter- 
esting sentences, as on page 213. Do not accept bare, 
uninteresting sentences like "Squirrels crack nuts." 
Insist on the addition of modifiers to make the sentences 
interesting. In this way you will make the lesson an 
exercise in thought and expression as well as in gram- 
mar. 

X. Predicate Nouns and Pronouns (229) 

Predicate nouns never cause any trouble in English, 
because nouns have the same form for both nominative 
and accusative relations ; the difficulty lies in predi- 
cate pronouns, which are sharply distinguished in good 
usage from pronouns used as direct objects. 

After writing the two illustrative sentences on the 
blackboard, lead the minds of the pupils to the defini- 
tion by questions. What kind of verb is "is" ? What 
does "major" do in the sentence? (It completes the 
predicate and describes the subject.) What part of 
speech is it? Ask similar questions about "he." 

The purpose of (a) is to test and strengthen the 
pupils' insight into the difference between direct ob- 
jects and predicate nouns or pronouns, as a further 
preparation for the practical application which comes 
in (b). 

In (b) require the reason before the form, as usual. 
At first the pupil should say : " The pronoun to be used 
is a predicate pronoun linked to the subject 'it' by 



102 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

the verb 'is,' to describe or explain it. A predicate 
pronoun should be in the nominative case. Therefore 
the sentence should be, 'It is I.' " After a while this 
form of explanation may be shortened, to avoid tedi- 
ousness. 

Follow the suggestions previously given for combat- 
ing common errors by training the ear and establish- 
ing habit. Have the pupils explain and correct the 
errors they themselves make. See pages n and 58. 

XI. Predicate Adjectives (232) 

This lesson prepares the way for the practical work 
in the next section. 

Write the illustrative sentences on the board, and 
ask the following questions: What does "neatly" 
tell? Does it go with " she " or " sews " ? What part 
of speech is it? Why? Could "neatly" be omitted 
without destroying the sentence? Could "sews" be 
changed to "is" or "seems"? Read the sentence 
without "neatly." Read the second sentence without 
"neat." Could "neat" be omitted? Does it apply 
to "she" or "seems"? What part of speech is it? 
Why? Could "seems" be changed to "is" without 
much change in the meaning? 

In giving reasons in (a),' the pupil should say: 
"'Me' denotes the receiver of the action expressed 
by the verb ' called ' ; therefore it is a direct object. 
' Again ' modifies the verb ' called ' ; therefore it is an 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 103 

adverb. 'Angry' completes the predicate and de- 
scribes or limits the subject ' father ' ; therefore it is 
a predicate adjective." 

XII. Choosing between Predicate Adjective and 
Adverb (234) 

This lesson is the practical application of the gram- 
matical knowledge and insight just acquired, combined 
with what was previously learned about the form of 
adverbs (Chapter Six, Section X). 

Emphasize the fact that good is never used by good 
speakers and writers as an adverb, and that well is 
both the adverb for "good" and also an adjective 
meaning "in good health." 

Spend as much time on this important lesson as 
necessary, and recur to it again and again, until it is 
no longer needed. Supplement it by requiring pupils 
to explain and correct before the class errors which 
they themselves have made. Use all the devices 
previously suggested for combating common errors 
and establishing correct language habits. See page 58. 

XIII. Participles (236) 

To help the slower pupils to grasp the content of the 
definition, write the following sentences on the board : 

The girl is my cousin. 

The girl reading a book is my cousin. 



104 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

What is the predicate of the first sentence? of the 
second? What is the verb? What words have been 
added in the second sentence to describe "girl"? 
Which of these words denotes an action? Who did 
the action? What received it? What is the relation 
of "book" to "reading"? ("Book" is the direct 
object of "reading.") Is "The girl reading a book" 
a sentence? Why not? How is "reading" used? 
(It is used to modify "girl.") How is it formed? 

Supplementary Work 

i. Have the pupils study in the same way sentences 
of their own that contain participles. Avoid in this 
work sentences which contain participles used as parts 
of verb phrases. If necessary, change verb phrases 
to simple verbs, so as not to confuse the pupil. The 
teaching of participles in verb phrases will come later. 

2. Copy on the blackboard some paragraphs or 
sentences from the pupils' own compositions, substitut- 
ing blanks for such participles as it is possible to supply 
from the context. Have each pupil write down in 
order the participles with which he would fill the 
blanks, so that if called on he may read the selection 
aloud supplying the participles from his list. Then, 
as a class exercise, number the blanks, and write on 
the board under each number all the participles which 
the class can suggest for that blank, perhaps adding 
some of your own. Let the fitness of the participles 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 105 

be freely discussed, and the class decide which is best 
for the author's purpose. After all the blanks have 
been rilled, the participles chosen by the class may be 
compared with those used by the original author. In 
this exercise it is not necessary to avoid participles 
used in verb phrases. 

3. The fourth paragraph on page 9 of the pupils' 
book may be used for a similar exercise in seeking the 
most appropriate participles and thus enlarging one's 
working vocabulary. Also any of the following para- 
graphs : 

(1) What a pleasant thing it is to see a little country lad 
riding one of the plough-horses to water, thumping his naked 
heels against the ribs of his stolid steed, and pulling hard on 
the halter as if it were the bridle of Bucephalus ! 

— Henry van Dyke. 
■ 

(2) At last I fell asleep on the grass, and awoke with a chorus 
of birds singing around me, and squirrels running up the tree, 
and some woodpeckers laughing. 

— Charles Darwin. 

(3) I know not how far Cadmus had gone, nor could he 
himself have told you, when, at no great distance before him, 
he beheld a brindled cow. She was lying down by the way- 
side, quietly chewing her cud; nor did she take any notice of 
the young man until he had approached pretty nigh. Then, 
getting leisurely upon her feet, and giving her head a gentle toss, 
she began to move along at a moderate pace, often pausing 
just long enough to crop a mouthful of grass. Cadmus loitered 
behind, whistling idly to himself, and scarcely noticing the cow. 
But still the brindled cow trudged on, whisking her tail to keep 



106 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

the flies away, and taking as little notice of Cadmus as she 
well could. (This selection may be used for adverbs also.) 

— Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

(4) [To explore a stream] you may go as a walker, taking 
the river-side path, or making a way for yourself through the 
tangled thickets or across the open meadows. You may go 
as a sailor, launching your light canoe on the swift current and 
committing yourself for a day, or a week, or a month, to the 
delightful uncertainties of a voyage through the forest. You 
may go as a wader, stepping into the stream and going down with 
it, through rapids and shallows and deeper pools, until you 
come to the end of your courage and the daylight. 

— Henry van Dyke. 

(5) What charming glimpses you catch from the window as 
the train winds along the valley. Here is a mill with its drip- 
ping, lazy wheel ; and there is a white cascade, foaming in silent 
pantomime as the train clatters by ; and here is a long, still pool 
with the cows standing knee-deep in the water and swinging 
their tails in calm indifference to the passing world ; and there 
is a lone fisherman sitting upon a rock, rapt in contemplation 
of the point of his rod. 

— Henry van Dyke. 

(6) The life of a river, like that of a human being, consists 
in the union of soul and body, the water and the banks. They 
belong together. They act and react upon each other. The 
stream moulds and makes the shore ; hollowing out a bay here, 
and building a long point there ; alluring the little bushes close 
to its side, and betiding the tall slim trees over its current; 
sweeping a rocky ledge clean of everything but moss, and 
sending a still lagoon full of white arrow-heads and rosy knot- 
weed far back into the meadow. The shore guides and con- 
trols the stream; now detaining and now advancing it; now 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 107 

bending it in a hundred sinuous curves, and now speeding it 
straight as a wild-bee on its homeward flight ; here hiding the 
water in a deep cleft overhung with green branches, and there 
spreading it out, like a mirror framed in daisies, to reflect the 
sky and the clouds; sometimes breaking it with sudden turns 
and unexpected falls into a foam of musical laughter, some- 
times soothing it into a sleepy motion like the flow of a dream. 

— Henry van Dyke. 



XIV. Using Participles (239) 

This exercise is designed to teach what is meant by 
"dangling participles," and how to avoid them. 

Some pupil may think that "crossing" might go 
with "my." Show him that "my" is a modifier of 
"hat," and is therefore an adjective — a "possessive 
adjective," as it is called by the Joint Committee on 
Grammatical Nomenclature. The sentence contains 
no substantives except "street," which is the direct 
object of "crossing," and "hat." There is no sub- 
stantive to denote who did the crossing ; there is noth- 
ing that the verbal adjective "crossing" can modify. 

Some of the sentences in (b) will have to be changed 
considerably. Insist, however, that the participles 
themselves be not changed, else the exercise will lose 
some of its value. One way to correct the sentences 
without changing the participles is to make them read 
as follows : 

(1) Running as fast as possible, I (he, she, it, we, they) quickly 
reached the spot. 



108 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

(2) Damaged by the explosion, the ship, etc. (This is a 
•case of faulty position rather than of "dangling.") 

(3) Coming to the top of the hill, had a beautiful view. 

(The pronoun to be used as the subject of "had" depends on 
the author's meaning.) 

(4) Walking down the street, saw an automobile come 

suddenly round the corner. (It would probably be better, 

except for the purpose of this exercise, to say, "As was 

walking down the street, an automobile came," etc.) 

(5) This is another case of faulty position. 

(6) Getting up early in the morning, one notices first, etc. 

(7) Coming nearer, thought the house was deserted. 

(It would be more natural to say "As came nearer, the 

house seemed deserted.") 

(8) He entered on his education, etc. (Better, "His educa- 
tion began — when he was sent," etc.) 

(9) Passing down the corridor, reached a doorway. 

(10) Ringing a bell, he was quickly admitted through a gate. 

Have the pupils point out the substantives to which 
the participles are attached in the revised sentences. 

After the participles have been properly attached, 
have the pupils try to express the same thoughts in 
other and perhaps better ways. 

Supplementary Work 

1. Encourage your pupils to use participles in their 
own writing and speaking. When you find a participle 
wrongly placed or "dangling" in a pupil's sentence, 
write the sentence on the board and have the fault 
explained and corrected before the class. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 109 

2. Select some sentence or paragraph containing 
participles and write it on the board with the par- 
ticiples (and their accompanying words) misplaced. 
Have the pupils rewrite the selection, putting the 
participles in proper positions, and testing their work 
by that of the original author. 

XV. Infinitive and Gerunds (241) • 

"Gerund" is the term recommended for the "in- 
finitive in -ing" by the Joint Committee on Gram- 
matical Nomenclature. The recommendation has been 
approved by the National Education Association and 
other educational bodies. Such terms as "participial 
noun," "participle used as a noun," etc., are incorrect 
and misleading. 

The lesson teaches itself. Study it through with 
the pupils. Emphasize the parallelism between the 
infinitive and the gerund, which often enables us to 
choose between them without any difference in mean- 
ing, as in the illustrative sentence. Let the pupils 
substitute gerunds for infinitives and infinitives for 
gerunds in (a) whenever it is possible, and decide which 
form of expression they like the better in the given 
sentence. Every preference should be supported by 
a clear reason. 

Have the pupils study (a) as diretted in their book. 
This paves the way for the necessary but rather 
difficult practical work in (b). 



HO ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

In (b) ask first for the use and classification of the 
italic word. This is the key to the form to be used 
before the italic word; if the italic word is a gerund, 
the word before it should be a modifier. Give the 
pupils time to see for themselves that "going," "hav- 
ing," "writing," "balking," "starting," and "denying" 
are gerunds, used as direct objects or after preposi- 
tions; while "fishing," " reading," and "wading" are 
participles attached to "him," "me," and "Tom." 
"Coming" is a gerund, though it might conceivably 
be a participle. If a gerund, the mother encourages 
the coming; if a participle, she encourages us. A ger- 
und names an action, a participle describes something. 

Note on the Infinitive 

i. The infinitive causes little trouble in daily speech. 
Its tenses are occasionally misused (see "A Modern 
English Grammar, Revised," page 324) ; but it should 
be taught chiefly for its value in securing force and 
variety of expression. With this end in view, atten- 
tion may be drawn to interchangeable sentences of 
the following type : 

To find fault is easy. 
It is easy to find fault. 
To worry does not pay. 
It does not pay to worry. 

2. Attention may also be drawn, if desired, to the 
fact that careful usage avoids a "split inrinitive," 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD III 

which consists in putting an adverb between "to" 
and its verb : as, 

To really forgive is hard. 

He determined to earnestly try. 

In these sentences it is better to put the adverb be- 
fore "to" or after the infinitive. 

3. If some bright pupil should notice that the in- 
finitive is sometimes used as an adjective phrase 
(e.g. "Water to drink") or an adverbial phrase (e.g. 
" Ashamed to beg"), and ask how this can be since the 
infinite is a verbal noun, you may explain that in such 
cases " to " has the force of a preposition : as, 

Water to drink. 
Water for drinking. 
Ashamed to beg. 
Ashamed of begging. 
We grieve to hear it. 
We grieve at hearing it. 

Lochinvar came to dance. 
Lochinvar came for dancing. 

For the full explanation of "to" before the infinitive 
see "A Modern English Grammar, Revised," page 321. 

XVI. Tenses (244) 

Tense is, perhaps, from a practical point of view, 
the most important subject in English grammar. 



112 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

This and the next two sections lay the necessary foun- 
dation for the practical work that follows. This 
particular section explains what is meant by tense. 
After the pupils' interest in the subject has been aroused 
by the opening paragraphs, write the three illustrative 
sentences on the board and ask such questions as the 
following : How do these sentences differ ? What 
time does "see" refer to? What time does "saw" 
refer to? What time does "shall see" refer to? 

Having thus led their minds up to the definitions, 
let the pupils point out the verbs in (a) and name the 
tense of each. They may then change each verb to 
a different tense and name the new tense which they 
have used. 

In (b) let the pupils name each tense before they 
change it. 

Extend this work to sentences selected from the 
pupils' own speaking and writing. 

XVII. The Perfect Tenses (246) 

An easy approach to understanding the form and 
meaning of the perfect tenses may be made by com- 
paring such sentences as the following : 

Mabel is making a dress. 

Jane has a dress made. 

Kitty chased a mouse. 

Tabby had a mouse caught. 

Tom will learn his lesson to-night. 

Alice will have her lesson learned to-night. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 113 

Such sentences, written on the board and discussed, 
will show what is meant by completed action in present, 
past, and future time, and how natural it is to express 
such completed action by a form of the verb have 
and a past participle. Then the illustrative sentences 
on page 247 of the pupil's book should be written on 
the board, and the following questions asked : What 
kind of action does "have written" express? What 
time does it refer to? What kind of action does "had 
written " express ? What time does it refer to ? What 
time does "shall have written" refer to? How does 
it differ in meaning from "shall write"? 

The tenses of "is," "write," and "call" should 
be learned by heart and recited. Pupils may also 
be required to give the tenses of other verbs sug- 
gested by their language habits ; but intensive study 
of the past tense and past participle should be de- 
ferred, since the purpose of this lesson is merely to 
teach the structure and meaning of the perfect tenses. 

The work in (2) may be supplemented by requiring 
the pupils to change the verbs in each sentence to any 
tense you may name. 

Have the pupils study and change in the same way 
perfect tenses which they themselves have used. 

XVIII. Progressive and Emphatic Tenses (248) 

This lesson is necessary to make the teaching of 
the English tenses complete. For example, pupils 



ii4 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

must not be allowed to think that the only present 
tense form is the simple present, "see." "Am see- 
ing" and "do see" are just as common forms of the 
present tense as "see," and must be explained; other- 
wise pupils will be perplexed when they meet these 
other forms. Furthermore, any pupil taking up the 
study of a foreign language will be greatly helped by 
knowing that in English there are three forms of the 
present tense ("see," "am seeing," and "do see"), 
and three forms of the past tense ("saw," "was see- 
ing," and "did see"). The progressive and emphatic 
tenses, however, are easy and not often misused, and 
may be passed over somewhat lightly. In this they 
differ from the simple tenses and the forms that in- 
clude the past participle, which must be studied with 
great care and learned with great accuracy, as provided 
in the next sections. 



Supplementary Work 

i. Require the pupils to name the tenses in sentences 
selected from their own writing or speaking. 

2. Have pupils tell in their own way the difference 
in meaning between such sentences as, 

I study history. 

I am studying history. 

I do study history. 

If possible, use sentences from their own writing. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 115 

XLX. Regular and Irregular Verbs (250) 

This oral exercise introduces the pupil to the crux 
of the whole subject of tense — how to form the past 
tense and the past participle from the present tense. 
It explains why these parts of a verb are called the 
principal parts ; and it shows how the past tense and 
the past participle are formed in the vast majority of 
verbs, called "regular." 

XX. Learning Principal Parts (251) 

This is, perhaps, the most important single lesson 
in grammar in the pupil's book. Some one has esti- 
mated that if children could be taught to use correctly 
the past tense and the past participle of thirteen verbs, 
they would avoid one sixth of their grammatical mis- 
takes. 

The only way to know the past tense and the past 
participle of verbs is to learn them. If pupils have 
not learned them correctly at home, they must learn 
them now at school. There is no better way than to 
memorize and recite them — the time-honored way, 
effective in all languages. It is not enough that they 
be printed in an appendix for reference ; they must be 
forced on the attention of the pupil, forever fixed in 
his mind — pounded in, if need be. Not that every 
pupil is to be drilled on every irregular or "catchy" 
verb ; that, of course, would waste time and energy. 
Fit your teaching to your pupils' needs. Observe 



Ii6 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

their habits of speech; note the verbs that they do 
not use correctly; drill them on these till their mis- 
takes disappear. 

The list of verbs includes those that are often mis- 
used. Do not hesitate to pass over those that your 
pupils already use correctly, or to add others which 
they misuse. In many communities the verbs most 
commonly misused are: see, do, come, ring, sing, 
drink, go. 

The forms listed in the pupil's book are all supported 
by good usage ; but they are not in all cases the only 
authorized forms. See, for example, the next to the 
last stanza in "Lochinvar." The listed forms are to 
be preferred. 

The work of learning the principal parts may, per- 
haps, be lessened by assigning the verbs to be learned 
in related groups instead of in alphabetical order. 
Thus: 

i. Cling, sling, sting, string, swing, wring. 

2. Drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim. 

3. Blow, draw, fly, grow, know, slay, throw. 

4. Bet, bid (offer money), burst, hurt, set, thrust, wet. 

5. Beseech, bring, buy, catch, fight, teach. 

6. Drive, forsake, ride, rise, take, strive, shake, write. 

7. Break, choose, freeze, tread, steal, speak, swell, weave. 

8. Swear, tear, wear. 

9. Beat, bid (command), bite, eat, fall, give, hide. 

10. Build, creep, feel, flee, flow, spend, weep. 

11. Begin, come, do, go, run, see. 

12. Get, shine, sit, stick, strike, win, wind. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 117 

Groups may be made up in any desired combina- 
tions: e.g. drink, shrink, sink; blow, grow, know, 
throw, flow ; drive, ride, rise, strive, write, bite, hide ; 
etc. The essential thing is that the pupil know the 
principal parts of each separate verb. 

Merely learning the principal parts by heart will 
not, of course, change incorrect habits of speech ; but it 
is the first step toward self -correction — a fundamental 
and essential step. It may be supplemented by all 
kinds of drills, including language games if the pupils 
are not too old to be interested in them. Mere parrot- 
like repetition of the correct forms, however, is likely 
to waste time, if it is not accompanied by knowledge 
of why it is correct and an intelligent effort by the 
pupil to use forms correctly in his own speech. Read 
again pages 11 and 58. 

XXI. Using Tenses (254) 

This exercise is the practical application of what has 
just been learned. Spend as much time on it as may 
be necessary, and come back to it again and again 
until it is no longer needed. 

Adapt it to the special needs of your class by using 
in (a) and (e) verbs which pupils do not use correctly; 
With the same verbs invent additional sentences like 
those in (b), (c), and (d). See "Important Note," 
page 58. 

In (a) vary the subject by substituting nouns and 
"he," "she," "it," "we," and "they" for "I." 



Ii8 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

XXII. Shall or Will (257) 

This is another lesson in which nothing can take the 
place of a certain amount of resolute memorizing, as 
the first essential step. After the pupils have learned 
the illustrative sentences, the bold-face type, and the 
tables, let them work through the exercises in (a), 
(b), (c), (d), (e), and (/), as directed. Insist on com- 
plete statements of reasons in (c), (d), and (e). The 
repetition of reasons, given in complete statements, 
helps to fix in the mind what the lesson is designed 
to teach. 

Supplement this work by writing on the blackboard 
sentences in which pupils have not used "shall" or 
"will" correctly, and require them to explain and 
correct their errors before the class. See "Important 
Note," page 58. 

XXIII. Voice (260) 

In working through this lesson with the pupils, 
emphasize (1) the convenience of the passive voice, 
and (2) its use of the past participle. 

Supplementary Work 

1. Supplement (a) and (b) by writing on the board 
sentences from pupils' compositions, and having the 
class change them so that active verbs become passive 
verbs and passive verbs become active. Draw atten- 
tion to the change which takes place in the prominence 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 119 

or emphasis given to a particular part of the thought. 
Make the pupils see what a convenience it is that verbs 
have two voices, and how the choice between them 
often depends on the prominence we wish to give to 
this or that part of the thought. 

The two kinds of sentences — what things do, and 
what is done to things — also enable us to avoid 
monotony in our way of expressing thoughts. It must 
not be forgotten, however, that a needless change from 
one voice to the other in the same paragraph causes 
jerkiness in the thought and makes it harder for the 
mind to follow. This should be pointed out, if need 
be, using the pupils' own writing as a basis for the 
instruction. 

2. Let the pupils find examples of active and passive 
verbs in their reader, and try to change the verbs from 
one voice to the other, noting the effect not only on 
the order and use of the other words in the sentence, 
but also on the thought and general effect. Which 
voice gives the best expression to that particular 
thought ? 

3. Select a number of sentences from those written 
by the pupils themselves, and have them changed and 
studied as in (2). 

XXIV. Misused Verbs (263) 

See suggestions about misused Adjectives and Ad- 
verbs, page 103. 



120 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

Note on Mood 

If it is desired to teach Mood, develop the subject 

as follows : 

He is here. 

O, that he were here ! 

Be here early. 

What forms of the verb "is" are used in these 
sentences? Which sentence presents the thought as 
a fact? Read the subject substantive and verb in 
that sentence. Which sentence presents the thought 
as a command? What is the subject substantive in 
that sentence? Which sentence presents the irlought 
as contrary to fact? Read the subject substantive 
and verb in that sentence. 

The form of a verb which presents a thought as a 
fact is called the Indicative Mood. 

The form of a verb which presents a thought as a 
command is called the Imperative Mood. 

The form of a verb which presents a thought as un- 
certain or contrary to fact is called the Subjunctive 
Mood. 

The indicative mood is the most common. 

The imperative mood of "is" is "be." The im- 
perative of all other verbs is the same as the indicative. 
The subject of the imperative mood is usually omitted, 
because it is not needed. 

The following is the subjunctive mood of "is" : 

Present Tense : I (he, she, it, we, they) be. 
Past Tense : I (he, she, it, we, they) were. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 121 

The subjunctive mood of other verbs is the same as 
the indicative, except that there is no "s" in the third 
person singular : as, 

I (he, she, it, we, they) call. 

The following sentences are examples of the use of 
the subjunctive mood : 

Turn ere it be too late. 

It is necessary that mother be consulted. 

I move that Mr. Jones be made chairman. 

I suggest that he take the chair. 

Here will I stand till Caesar pass along. 

If it be asked why he did it, the answer is easy. 

If thy hand offend thee, cut it off. 

If I were you, I should not go. 

'Twere better by far, to wed our fair Ellen, etc. 

What would the indicative be in each of these 
sentences ? Would it express the thought as accurately ? 
Other examples are : 

If I were going, I should take a coat. 

If he were king, he would rule well. 

If it were moonlight, we should not need lamps. 

If it weren't so cold, we could play outside. 

I wish Jessie were here. 

She dresses as if she were a princess. 

If wishes were horses, beggars could ride. 

That boy acts as if he were a man. 



CHAPTER NINE 

DESCRIPTION 

I. Importance of Description (265) 

After studying the exercise in their books with the 
pupils, take time to emphasize further the importance 
of description. 

1. Give, and ask the pupils to give, examples in 
which inadequate and incorrect descriptions have led 
to amusing, or serious, even tragic results, such as the 
following : 

A man who had left his overcoat at his club, sent a servant 
for it. He told the servant that the overcoat was a long gray 
ulster with patch pockets and a storm collar. In half an hour 
the servant returned struggling under the weight of eleven 
"gray ulsters with patch pockets and storm collars." He 
dropped them before his master, panting, "There, boss, take 
your choice!" After the amazed man had identified his own 
coat, the servant examined it closely and said, "If you had 
told me there was a button off the left cuff and a grease spot 
on the right shoulder, you'd have saved me a lot of lugging." 

2. Let pupils in turn describe a coat or a hat left 
in the cloak room, while others try to identify the 
articles described. 

3. Perhaps the pupils know or have heard of cases 
in which people have been punished on the strength 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 123 

of false descriptions, — descriptions that the wit- 
nesses gave in good faith. 

If a scout, sent out to reconnoiter a wood, returned with the 
false information that no enemy was near, should his careless- 
ness or lack of close observation be excused even though he 
should be the first soldier to fall under the fire of the enemy? 

4. While impressing the importance of accurate 
descriptions, do not fail to impress the equal impor- 
tance of accuracy in the interpretation of descriptions. 

A country constable arrested a man who was driving a horse 
that the constable thought stolen. The man easily proved his 
ownership. The constable insisted that he was justified, as 
the horse exactly fitted a description of a horse stolen in a 
neighboring county. On producing the description and com- 
paring it with the horse, very few points of resemblance could 
be established. 

Was the arrested man justified in resenting his de- 
tention from his rightful business? Who was to 
blame ? 

5. To test careful interpretation of descriptions, 
send two or three pupils from the room. While they 
are absent, let the other pupils, working together and 
observing carefully, write a description of one of their 
number on the board. When all have agreed that 
the description is exact and adequate, let those who 
were absent from the room return, and from the de- 
scription, identify the person described. For this 
description, choose a pupil who has many things in 



124 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

common with several others. For example, if several 
boys have light hair, blue eyes, and are wearing gray 
flannel shirts, choose one of them. Don't choose the 
only child with red hair, or the only one wearing a 
green dress. Such marked personalities call for little 
observation on the part of the one who makes the 
description, or of the one who follows it. It encour- 
ages guessing. Let this — the need of close obser- 
vation for accuracy of description and sureness of 
interpretation — be the one emphatic purpose in this 
recitation. 

II. Kinds of Descriptions (266) 

Let the pupils determine which descriptions are 
practical, and why. What particulars will serve for 
identification — will set the thing described apart 
from all others of its class? Next, have them decide 
which are literary descriptions, and tell what feeling 
towards the thing described is aroused in each case. 

This work may be supplemented by having the 
pupils find in their textbooks practical and literary 
descriptions. Guide them somewhat by asking in 
which books they would be most apt to find practical 
descriptions — literary descriptions. 

III. Choosing an Object for Description (268) 

Before allowing the pupils to make the list of ten 
objects that they would like to describe, emphasize 
the importance of including in this list only things in 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 125 

which they are genuinely interested. To prepare a 
list of the first ten objects that occur to one, misses 
the purpose of the lesson. Interest in the subject 
insures its success. After the pupils have written their 
lists, have them go over them again and number the 
subjects in the order of their degree of interest in them. 
Keep these lists for additional work if desired. 

IV. Describing a Familiar Object (268) 

(a) Let pupils determine if every description con- 
tains something in it that distinguishes the pet de- 
scribed from all others in the same class. A descrip- 
tion of a pet cat that fits any gray cat is not sufficiently 
distinguishing. That the particular gray cat de- 
scribed may be surely identified, some peculiarity — 
a physical defect, an unusual marking, a pronounced 
habit, — must be included in the description. 

(b) After each pupil gives his description, let the 
others tell how they think the owner feels towards 
the animal described. If any pupil has no pet, let 
him describe the pet of a neighbor or friend. 

Let pupils discuss advertisements of lost articles 
or animals as these appear in the newspaper, criticiz- 
ing them from' the standpoint of their adequacy and 
distinctiveness. Let pupils also compare advertise- 
ments of houses or homes for sale. Are these described 
with accuracy or with feeling, or in both ways? 
Which are most likely to attract a buyer? Why? 



126 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

V. Describing a Bird (271) 

VI. Describing a Flower (273) 

The above exercises afford additional types of de- 
scriptions for study, and opportunities for interesting 
descriptions by the pupils. Keep the two purposes 
of description ever in mind: (1) for identification, 
and (2) to arouse feeling. 

VII. Describing a School (275) 

If a pupil selects for the subject of his description 
either (1), (2), (3), or (6), suggest that he read Lessons 
III and IV, Chapter Three, before writing. 

When possible, test the descriptions ; for example, 
in (5) have a pupil arrange a desk as described by a 
pupil choosing that subject. If the arrangement does 
not suit the one who wrote the description, one of two 
things is evident — either the description is faulty 
or the interpretation is poor. 

VIII. The Viewpoint (276) 

To supplement this lesson, have the pupils describe 
some well-known landmark or building. Other chil- 
dren, with the descriptions in hand, will test the 
accuracy of the description by discovering the view- 
point taken by the writer. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 127 

LX. The Mind's Viewpoint (279) 

Let the children supplement this with personal 
experiences. How the schoolroom looks when I have 
prepared my lessons; when I have not. How the 
dinner table looks when I am hungry ; when I feel ill. 

X. Studying Descriptions for Feeling (280) 

Make similar analyses and studies of suitable bits 
of description as these are found in reading books. 

XI. Writing Descriptions With Feeling (282) 

Every pupil's description should be judged by the 
standard, Does it arouse emotion? What emotion? 
If the pupils can be trained to judge the work of others 
understandingly, they will add strength and purpose 
to their own work. Let them be the judges. 

XII. Different Viewpoints (283) 

XIII. Subjects for Description (284) 

XIV. Descriptions in a Story (285) 

Encourage pupils to make note of descriptions in 
their reading lesson, also to note them in their home 
reading and to bring to class those that seem to them 
particularly pleasing or enlightening. 

If additional work is desired, let each pupil choose 
a short story either from his school reader or from a 



128 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

home or library book, and make a note of the different 
descriptions used. Thus : 

A Road The Old Hall 

A Garden The Sitting Room 

The Rose Arbor The Old Spinet 

The Outside of the House The Fireplace 

The House Door The Chairs 

The Maid Who Opened It The Hostess 

Such an exercise impresses the pupils : (i) with the 
number of descriptions used in ordinary story writing 
and (2) with the importance of descriptions in making 
the reader see with the author. 

XV. Description by Comparisons (287) 

Supplement this by the study of poems and selec- 
tions from readers. Longfellow's poems are especially 
good for such comparisons. The Village Blacksmith 
is an easy poem to begin with. The Wreck of the 
Hesperus has eleven fine comparisons. Have the 
children determine why each comparison is good. Let 
them try to make others, and judge the fitness of their 
own. 



CHAPTER TEN 

PHRASES; PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, INTER- 
JECTIONS; CLAUSES 

This chapter completes the survey of the different 
kinds of modifiers begun in the study of adjectives 
and adverbs, and presents the remaining parts of 
speech in their practical aspects. The study of 
phrases prepares the way for understanding the nature 
and use of prepositions. After a brief discussion of 
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, and a 
summary of the Parts of Speech, the nature of clauses 
is explained, in preparation for the study of simple, 
compound, and complex sentences in the next chapter. 

Phrases and clauses should be taught so as to lead 
pupils to use them freely in their own language, to 
secure variety of expression as well as accuracy. Their 
own writing should have a prominent place in the work, 
and the improvement of their own writing should be 
the constant aim of your teaching. 

I. What a Phrase Is (293) 

II. Adjective and Adverbial Phrases (294) 

These are oral exercises to be studied with the pupils. 

In II a, "those" may be changed to such phrases 

as "in front of us," "crossing the street," "swimming 

129 



130 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

near the bridge," "on the cliff," "behind the mule," 
"walking down the track." "Dangerous" may be 
changed to "of danger," "exposed to danger," "rilled 
(or fraught) with danger." "Comfortable" may be 
changed to "of comfort," "of restfulness and peace," 
"of being at one's ease." "Courage" may be changed 
to "of courage," "of valor," "of daring," "showing 
high courage." 

III. Using Phrases (295) 

The purpose of this exercise is primarily to test and 
reinforce the pupils' understanding of the nature and 
use of phrases, and to show how phrases should be 
punctuated in writing. It is also an exercise in oral 
and written expression. 

Study through the lesson with the pupils in the 
manner indicated in their book. Get from them in 
(a) as long and varied lists of phrases as possible, and 
require both interest and variety in the sentences 
which they compose under (b) and (c). 

The sentences in (e) might be changed to read as 
follows : 

(1) In this place many years ago stood the farmers engaged 
in battle. 

(2) Endowed with strength, full of ambition, and in good 
health, I went at an early age to London. 

(3) In that city I found myself before long without a penny 
and without a friend. 

(4) After a while a man with a kind heart who had seen me 
in some place or other gave me work every day. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 131 

Accept any appropriate phrases that may be sug- 
gested, and draw attention to the fact that usually 
(though not always) the briefest, most concise expres- 
sion is the most forceful, because it conveys its mean- 
ing in the shortest time. 

After the lesson has been studied orally and the 
exercises have been discussed in class, some of them 
should be written out. 

Supplementary Work 

1. Write on the blackboard sentences selected from 
the pupils' own compositions; then have the class 
point out the phrases and tell what they modify, and 
whether they are adjective or adverbial phrases. Let 
them suggest adjectives or adverbs that might be sub- 
stituted for certain phrases, and consider whether the 
change would be an improvement. 

2. Let the class suggest phrases which might be 
substituted for the adjectives and adverbs in the 
pupils' sentences, and try to decide which is the best 
expression for the writer's purpose. The opportunity 
here for valuable work is very great. 

3. Select from some textbook in the hands of the 
pupils a sentence or paragraph containing a number 
of phrases. Write it on the board, arranging the 
phrases in haphazard position. Then have the pupils 
rewrite the selection, putting the phrases where they 
ought to be. Let them test their work by comparing 
it with the original. 



132 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

4. If a sentence happens to contain a substantive 
phrase, point out that phrases are sometimes used 
substantively, i.e. as nouns; but do not dwell long 
on substantive phrases, which usually take care of 
themselves in actual composition. 

5. Have the pupils tell the use and classification 
of the following words in (J) : clear, cold, alike, hedged, 
in (line 5), carrying, filled. 

IV. Prepositions (297) 

The nature and use of a preposition may be further 
shown by having pupils change the relative position 
of two objects, for example, a book and a desk, and 
express their relation in complete sentences : as, 

My notebook is lying in my desk. 
My notebook is lying on my desk. 
My notebook is lying under my desk. 

This exercise may be extended and varied until 
even the slowest pupil grasps the function of prepo- 
sitions. In such exercises do not let the verb "is" 
and the easy prepositions "in," "on," "to," "at" be 
overworked. Require a variety of objects, actions, 
and relations; that is, a variety of nouns, verbs, and 
prepositions. 

In (a) get from the pupils as long lists of preposi- 
tions as possible, both orally and in writing. Within 
a reasonable time each pupil should have in his work- 
ing vocabulary most of the prepositions in the following 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 



133 



list. The unfamiliar prepositions should be written 
on the board with appropriate substantives, and kept 
before the pupils' eyes, with frequent short exercises 
on their proper use in sentences. 

List of Prepositions 



after 


behind 


except 


since 


aboard 


below 


for 


through 


about 


beneath 


from 


till 


across 


beside, besides 


i in 


to 


against 


between 


into 


toward, towards 


along 


betwixt 


notwithstanding 


; throughout 


amidst, amid 


beyond 


of 


under 


among 


but (except) 


off 


underneath 


amongst 


by 


on 


up 


around, round concerning 


over 


until 


aslant 


despite 


past 


unto 


at 


down 


pending 


upon 


athwart 


during 


regarding 


with 


barring 


ere 


respecting 


within 


before 


excepting 


saving, save 


without 



In (b) the relationship expressed by the prepositions 
should be shown as follows, orally and afterward in 
writing : 



moved 


at 


sunrise 


army 


of 


Nabob 


pouring 


through 


openings 


openings 


of 


camp 


moved 


toward 


grove 


lay 


in 


which 


armed 


with 


firelocks 



134 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 



armed 


with 


pikes 


armed 


with 


swords 


armed 


with 


bows 


armed 


with 


arrows 


spread 


over 
and so on 


plain 



V. Studying Sentences for Prepositions (299) 

The purpose of this section is to test and strengthen 
the pupils' knowledge of the function of a preposition 
by exercises in analysis. 

Let the pupils do the exercises orally, following the 
models given in their book. They may afterwards 
write them. 

The prepositions in (b) should be written as follows : 



torrents 


of 


Norway 


leap 


from 
( 'Down" is here an adverb) 


homes 


leap 


with 


cataracts 


run (or races) 


to 


sea 


streams 


of 


England 


move 


through 


fields 


move 


beside 


towns 


brawl 


through 


moorland 


flash 


along 


glens 


rivers 


of 


Alps 


are born 


in 


caves 


issue 


from 


which 


issue 


with 


waters 


rivers 


of 


West 


roll 


through 


valleys 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 



135 



plunge 

rivers 

creep 

heavy 

banners 



down 


canyons 


of 


South 


under 


archways 


with 


banners 


of 


moss 



Supplementary Work 

1. Copy on the blackboard some sentences or para- 
graphs from the pupils' own compositions, substituting 
blanks for the prepositions used. Let the class sug- 
gest as many appropriate prepositions for each blank 
as they can. Help them with suggestions from the 
list on page 133. Write on the board the list of prepo- 
sitions suggested by the class for each blank and let 
them choose the one that seems the best. Compare 
the result of this class work with the sentences or 
paragraphs as originally written. 

2. Copy on the blackboard some sentences or 
paragraphs from the pupils' own compositions and 
have the pupils point out the prepositional phrases 
and consider whether they can be improved in any 
way — choice of preposition, addition or omission of 
modifiers, or change of position. 

VI. Pronouns with Prepositions (300) 

This lesson is designed to explain and correct those 
common errors which consist in using the wrong form 
of pronouns after prepositions, especially when the 
pronoun is coupled with a noun or "you." 



136 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

Work through the lesson with the pupils orally, 
requiring them to state accurately the reason for each 
correct form before the form itself is given. For ex- 
ample, a pupil should say: "The omitted pronoun 
is used with the preposition ' to ' ; good writers and 
speakers use the objective case with prepositions; 
therefore the sentence should be, 'Mother wrote to 
both Barbara and me. ' " 

After the exercises have been studied orally, they 
may be written. 

Spend as much time on this lesson as necessary, 
and come back to it again and again, until it is no 
longer needed. Train the ear to the correct forms by 
having them frequently read aloud. See page 58. 

Some misused prepositions are discussed in Section 
XIV (313) ; they may be studied at this point if de- 
sired. 

VII. Conjunctions (302) 

This lesson shows what a conjunction is. It pre- 
pares the way for the next lesson and for the study of 
compound and complex sentences in the next chapter. 
Study the lesson with the pupils in the manner indi- 
cated in their book. 

In (a) have the pupils mention any other conjunc- 
tions that might be substituted for those used. 

In (b) get as long lists as possible. 

In (c) require interesting sentences. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 



137 



Supplementary Work 
The following is a list of conjunctions in common 



use: 



Simple Conjunctions 



although 


lest 


therefore 


and 


nevertheless 


though 


as 


nor 


unless 


because 


or 


when 


but 


since 


wherefore 


for 


still 


whether 


however 


than 


while 


if 


that 


yet 




Compound Conjunctions 


as if 


as sure as 


in order that 


as though 


except that 


for as much as 


as long as 


in case that 


provided that 


as soon as 







Let the pupils give sentences using all or most of 
these conjunctions, and let them tell what the con- 
junctions join. The tendency is to overwork a few 
conjunctions. Every conjunction listed above should 
become a part of the working vocabulary. 

VIII. Correlatives (303) 

LX. Interjections (305) 
These are oral lessons to be studied with the pupils. 



138 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

X. Summary of the Parts of Speech (306) 

This lesson is designed to test and strengthen the 
pupil's power to recognize the different parts of speech, 
and to teach the important fact that the classification 
of a word changes as its use in a sentence changes. 

Work through the exercises first orally, requiring 
the pupils to tell in the words of the definition why 
each word belongs to a particular part of speech. 
For example, the pupil should say : "Honest" modifies 
the noun "man" ; therefore it is an adjective. 

In (d) and (e) require interesting sentences. 

For supplementary drill on recognizing the parts 
of speech, use the school reader or, better, the pupils' 
own writing. 

XL What a Clause Is (309) 

This and the two following sections explain the 
nature of clauses and their use as modifiers. They 
lay the foundation for the study and use of clauses in 
compound and complex sentences in the next chapter. 

Write the two illustrative sentences on the board, 
one under the other, and lead the minds of the pupils 
to the definition in the following way. Have them 
tell the subject substantive and the verb of each 
sentence. Then ask the following questions: What 
kind of phrase is used to modify "awoke" in the first 
sentence? What is "at"? What group of words is 
used to modify "awoke" in the second sentence? 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 139 

Is this group of words a phrase? Why not? What 
is the subject? the predicate? What is the word 
"when"? 

This work may be extended by having the pupil 
compare, in the same way, these sentences : 

She met a girl with blue eyes. 

She met a girl whose eyes were blue. 

Learn in youth. 

Learn while you are young. 



XII. Using Clauses (310) 

The purpose of this exercise is to test and strengthen 
the pupil's understanding of the nature of clauses, 
and to show how they should be punctuated in writ- 
ing. It also furnishes an exercise in careful thinking 
and composing. 

In teaching the use of commas to set off clauses, 
emphasize the fact that punctuation marks are signs 
to the eye, their sole purpose being to make written 
language clearer to the reader. It is very important 
that every pupil see the difference between necessary 
and unnecessary clauses, as in the two sentences 
about water. Write these two sentences on the board, 
one under the other ; and let the pupils point out the 
subject and the predicate of each clause. Then have 
them read each sentence omitting the clause, and tell 
whether what remains is true. This will show them 



140 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

how to distinguish a necessary clause from one that 
is merely descriptive or explanatory. Sometimes there 
is nothing but the punctuation or the tone of voice to 
tell the meaning, as in the sentences, "He pulled up 
the line which had a fish on it" and "He pulled up the 
line, which had a fish on it." 

For additional work on the punctuation of clauses, 
use sentences from the pupils' own writing. 

In (a) have the pupils suggest other clauses that 
might be used in the same sentences. 

In (b) get from the pupils as many different modify- 
ing clauses for each sentence as you can. 

In (c) and (d) require both variety and interest in 
the sentences composed by the pupils. Encourage 
competition by writing on the board sentences of 
unusual interest. 

The sentences in (e) might be changed as follows : 

(i) He was welcome everywhere. 

(2) Beautiful things are ennobling. 

(3) Trustworthy boys are easily found. 

(4) I will go with you. 

(5) I like to walk by moonlight. 

Accept any appropriate word or phrase that may be 
suggested. Have the class consider which expression 
is the more effective, and why. For example, "wher- 
ever he went" is, perhaps, more vivid and appropriate 
to the thought than the shorter "everywhere"; but 
"that are beautiful" has no advantage over the single 
word "beautiful" in the sentence in the book. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 141 

In (/) and (g) get from the pupils as many clauses 
as you can for each word or phrase. These are val- 
uable exercises in thought as well as expression. 

After the exercises have been studied orally, they 
may be written. 

XIII. Studying Sentences for Clauses (311) 

The purpose of this exercise is to make the pupil 
see still more clearly the nature and importance of 
clauses. 

Have the pupils study the sentences themselves, 
following the model given in their book. 

Supplementary Work 

1. Copy on the blackboard some sentences selected 
from the pupils' own writing; then have the class 
point out the clauses, telling the subject and predicate 
of each and how the clause is used. 

Whenever possible, let the pupils suggest words or 
phrases that might be substituted for a certain clause, 
and consider whether the change would be an improve- 
ment. 

2. Let the pupils suggest clauses which might be 
used instead of some word or phrase, and consider 
whether the change would be an improvement. This 
work in the contraction and expansion of sentences 
is very valuable. It should be based mainly on the 
pupils' own writing. 



142 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

3. Select from some textbook a sentence or para- 
graph containing a number of clauses. Write it on 
the board, arranging the clauses in haphazard position. 
Have the pupils rewrite the selection, putting the 
clauses where they ought to be. Let them compare 
their work with the original. 

Note on Substantive Clauses 

Substantive clauses, which are much less common 
than modifying clauses, may be easily taught, if de- 
sired, by having the pupils compare the following 
sentences : 

The story is not true. 

That he ran away is not true. (Clause as subject.) 
The story that he ran away is not true. (Clause in apposi- 
tion with " story.") 
He knew me. 

He knew who I was. (Clause as direct object.) 
His fault was cowardice. 
His fault was that he ran away. (Clause as predicate noun.) 

Other examples of substantive clauses are these : 

Life is what we make it. 

What he does is well done. 

Show us where you found it. 

This is not what I asked for. 

What he promises, he will do. 

A child should do what he is told. 

No man can lose what he never had. 

He admitted that he had made a mistake. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 143 

XIV. Misused Prepositions (313) 

No attempt is made here to give an exhaustive list 
of prepositions that are sometimes misused. The 
purpose is simply to show how such errors may be 
treated, using as examples some prepositions that are 
very often misused. Add to this list any other prepo- 
sitions which your pupils do not use correctly. See 
page 58. 



CHAPTER ELEVEN 

SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES; 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

I. Simple Sentences Defined (314) 

In order that the pupils may apply the definition of 
a simple sentence given in their book, it may be well 
to give them some exercises in separating subjects and 
predicates. The three exercises that follow will supply 
all the practice needed. 

(a) Read such sentences as the following to the 
pupils. Have them tell you orally the subject and 
predicate. 

1. Come to our picnic supper. 

2. I will make the fire. 

3. John and Fred may gather the sticks. 

4. Tom will bring the water and Mother will make the 
coffee. 

5. Fanny and Clara will cut the bread and make the sand- 
wiches. 

The pupils should recite as follows: (1) "You" is 
the subject understood; "come to our picnic supper" 
is the predicate. This sentence contains only one 
subject and one predicate; therefore, it is a simple 
sentence. 

144 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 145 

(4) "Tom" is the subject; "will bring the water" 
is the predicate; "Mother" is the subject; "will 
make the coffee" is the predicate. This sentence 
has two subjects with separate predicates ; therefore, 
it is not a simple sentence. 

(5) "Fanny and Clara" is the subject; "will cut 
the bread and make the sandwiches" is the predicate. 
This sentence has one compound subject and one 
compound predicate ; therefore, it is a simple sentence. 

Any page of simple prose from an elementary read- 
ing book will provide good sentences to be used in this 
way. 

(b) Write lists of sentences on the board, or assign 
a paragraph in an easy reader (one for grades II-IV), 
or in a history or geography. Have the pupils study 
each sentence and separate the subject from the predi- 
cate, as illustrated in their book. Have them mark 
the simple sentences thus : 

Subject Predicate 



The trees and the grass are newly green s.s. 

This exercise may be further supplemented, if neces- 
sary, by having the pupils find all the simple sentences 
on a page and separate the subjects and predicates. 

(c) Let the pupils write a paragraph made up en- 
tirely of simple sentences, and prove that they are 
simple sentences by pointing out the subject and predi- 
cate of each. 



146 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

These three exercises help the pupil to get the sense 
of the simple sentence through the ear, and through 
the eye; they also furnish opportunity to test his 
acquisition of this simple sentence sense. 

II. Simple Sentences as Topic Sentences (315) 

If any additional work is needed in this section, 
the following exercises may prove helpful. 

(a) Let the pupils find from a page in their geog- 
raphies, histories, or any simple narrative, all the 
topic sentences and determine (1) which are simple 
sentences, and (2) which give the best idea of the con- 
tent of the paragraph. 

(b) Give the pupils a title and an outline in the form 
of some simple topic sentences, and let them enlarge 
the topic sentences into a complete composition, either 
orally or in writing, as : 

Our Fishing Trip 

1. It was a beautiful morning in early spring. (What made 
it beautiful ?) 

2. Mother packed a most substantial luncheon. (Of what 
did it consist ? How packed ?) 

3. We started on our long walk to the lake. (Picture the 
walk.) 

4. We hired three flat-bottomed boats and were soon at our 
sport. (What kind of fishing — trolling, casting? Did the 
boats keep together? Tell anything that adds clearness or 
interest to the narrative.) 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 147 

5. At luncheon, on the island, we told stories of our morn- 
ing experiences. (Relate some of these experiences.) 

6. In the afternoon a thunderstorm drove us to the shore. 
(Describe the storm. Where did the fishers stay during the 
storm ? Was there any use in trying to fish after the storm had 
passed ?) 

7. We arrived home tired, hungry, but very happy. (How- 
many fish had been caught? How was the hunger satisfied? 
How did the fishers rest?) 

Where such a lesson as the above is used either as 
an oral or a written lesson, give the pupils time to work 
out the story thoughtfully, that they may produce 
something interesting and worth while. 

(c) Let the pupils prepare their own topic sentences 
and from these make a connected composition. Help 
them by setting limits to the work ; for example, the 
following direction might be given to the girls: To 
make a combination salad, we may use lettuce, to- 
matoes, cucumbers, and some kind of dressing. Make 
topic sentences that might be used in describing just 
how each of the four parts of the salad are prepared. 

For the boys, suggest similarly the making of some- 
thing in which they are interested. 



III. Simple Sentences for Quick or Excited Action (316) 

In their library books the pupils may find short 
quotations, illustrating the author's resort to short, 
simple sentences to portray quick or excited action. 



148 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

IV. Simple Interrogative Sentences to Denote Suspense 

(318) 

Have the pupils read Patrick Henry's Appeal to 
Arms, and note the number of interrogative sentences 
he uses to emphasize the negative, as well as to keep 
the interest of his audience suspended. 

For a culmination of these lessons on the use of 
simple sentences, read to the pupils some fine piece of 
prose that illustrates and enforces the teaching. The 
Black Horse and His Rider, by George Lippard, is an 
excellent selection for this purpose. Call the pupils' 
attention to the skill of the writer in holding the sus- 
pense to the very last sentence. Note that he uses 
simple, interrogative sentences as one means of secur- 
ing this effect. 

V. Compound Sentences Defined (318) 

(a) Give the pupils a number of compound sentences. 
Have them name the independent clauses and tell why 
they are independent clauses. The following com- 
pound sentences may be used : 

1. The sun was blotted out; the thunder rolled; the light- 
ning flashed ; the storm was upon us. 

The pupils should say: This is a compound sen- 
tence because it is made up of four independent clauses. 
The clauses are independent because each is complete 
in itself and could be used alone as a simple sentence. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 149 

2. A clear, sweet note reached my ear; a flash of blue de- 
lighted my eye ; the first bluebird of the spring had come. 

3. Ring the bells, beat the drums, blow the bugles; the day 
is wholly ours ! 

4. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

(b) Let the pupils give the author's single thought 
for each sentence — the one thought he wanted to 
stand out clearly, as : (1) the coming of the storm, 
(2) the arrival of the first bluebird, (3) the rejoicing 
over victory, (4) the close of the day. 



VI. The Use of Compound Sentences (319) 

Let the pupils find in any of their books examples 
of compound sentences, note what marks of punctua- 
tion separate the clauses, and give reasons for the 
use of the particular marks. Let them also try to de- 
termine why in each case the author used a compound 
sentence rather than two or more simple sentences. 



VII. Conjunctions in Compound Sentences (322) 

(a) Give the pupils a number of compound sentences. 
Have them select the conjunction in each and tell 
whether it shows addition, contrast, cause and effect, 



ISO ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

or choice. Keep these sentences simple in thought, 
as: 

i. Beauty may fly, but character stays. 

2. Mother shall have this apple, because it is the best. 

3. Our lips smiled, but our hearts ached. 

4. The trees bent over the children, and the grass was soft 
beneath their little bare feet, so they were happy. 

5. We must control our tempers or our tempers will mas- 
ter us. 

6. The meadows are sweet with the breath of springtime, 
and the woods are filled with the melody of bird-music. 

7. I know the way well, therefore I will lead you. 

8. Boys, we win to-day or Molly Stark is a widow to-night. 

9. The bells rang out the glad news and the excited multi- 
tude cheered for joy. 

10. Christ never wrote a tract, but he went about doing good. 

VIII. Making Compound Sentences (324) 

Give the pupils a clause of a compound sentence 
and let them complete it in four ways : (a) by add- 
ing a clause that carries on the same line of thought, 
(b) by adding a clause that expresses contrast, (c) by 
adding a clause that expresses a conclusion, (d) by add- 
ing a clause that expresses a choice. Thus, if you give 
the clause, The sun is shining, the following sentences 
may be made in fulfillment of the above requirement: 

(1) The sun is shining and flowers perfume the air. 

(2) The sun is shining but some hearts are sad. 

(3) The sun is shining, therefore we will go for a drive. 

(4) The sun is shining or the electric light makes my room 
as bright as day. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 151 

IX. Omitting Conjunctions in Compound Sentences (325) 

(a) Let the pupils find a certain number of compound 
sentences, say ten, in their textbooks or in library 
books, and tell why conjunctions are used or omitted 
in each case. 

(b) Let the pupils supply conjunctions in such sen- 
tences as the following, and decide what effect is pro- 
duced on each sentence by using the conjunction. 

1 . Time flies ; death urges ; heaven invites. 

2. Keep your poor excuse ; I will not accept it. 

3. Excuses are worse than lies ; they are lies guarded. 

4. The determined man succeeds; the faltering man fails. 

5. Half our fears are idle; the rest are shameful. 

6. Trust men ; they will not betray you. 

7. The fox is very cunning; he is more cunning who traps 
him. 

8. Avoid flatterers ; they are thieves in disguise. 

9. We are bound to be honest; we are not bound to be 
rich. 

10. The stingy man loves to give advice ; it costs nothing. 

X. Complex Sentences Defined (326) 

Give the pupils a number of complex sentences. 
Have them name the principal clauses, also the sub- 
ordinate clauses, and tell why they are subordinate, as: 

(1) A man's task is light when his heart is light. 

After studying the sentence, the pupil should answer: 
This is a complex sentence because it contains a sub- 
ordinate clause. The subordinate clause is, "when 



152 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

his heart is light." It is a subordinate clause because 
it does not express an independent thought; it tells 
when a man's task is light. The principal clause is 
"A man's task is light," because it expresses an in- 
dependent thought and might stand alone. 

(2) That man is happy who has a child to love. 

(3) A man soon learns how little he knows when a child 
begins to ask questions. 

(4) When one has not what one likes, one must like what 
one has. 

(5) God helps the sailor when he rows. 

(6) The robin that comes first is the most gladly welcomed 
guest. 

(7) Where the pools are still, the water-lilies grow. 

(8) As the days lengthen, the storms strengthen. 

(9) I love the summer because it brings the birds and 
flowers. 

(10) If you will sing, I will accompany you. 

Other suitable sentences are to be found on page 
313 of the pupils' book. 

XI. Conjunctions in Complex Sentences (328) 

Let the pupils find in their textbooks, or in their 
general reading, complex sentences containing all the 
different kinds of conjunctions treated in their book. 
Several lesson periods may be profitably spent in search 
of these sentences. One lesson may be spent in find- 
ing those denoting (1) time, another in finding those 
denoting (2) place, and other periods in finding those 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 153 

denoting (3) manner or means, (4) cause, and (5) condi- 
tion or purpose. 

Keep on file the best sentences the pupils find. 
Have one of each kind placed on cards, — that is, five 
different sentences on each card. These cards may be 
used for needed reviews of complex sentences and their 
connectives. 

XII. Relative Pronouns (331) 

Having written the illustrative sentences on the 
blackboard, ask these questions : In (2) what word 
stands for "this top"? What word connects the 
separate sentences? Since "which" is used instead 
of the noun "top," what part of speech is "which"? 
Which clause makes the principal statement in (2)? 
How is the clause "which he gave to Laura" used? 
What kind of clause is it — adjective or adverbial? 

In the same way lead the pupils to see the use of 
who, that, and which in combining into the sentences on 
pages 332 and 333 the following separate thoughts: 

(1) A man betrays his country. The man is a traitor. 

(2) You found a book. I lost the book. 

(3) Behavior is a mirror. In it every one shows his image. 

The sentences in (a) may be analyzed in the follow- 
ing way: The principal clause is, "He is not always 
brave." The subordinate clause is "that is strong." 
"That" is a relative pronoun whose antecedent is 
"he." 



154 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

Have the pupils study in the same way the relative 
pronouns in sentences selected from their own writing. 

Exercise (b) is an exercise in variety of expression 
as well as in the use of relative pronouns. 

XIII. Making Complex Sentences (334) 

If the three preceding lessons have been clearly un- 
derstood, the pupils will find no difficulty in following 
the directions in their books. This lesson may be 
considered a test of the other three. 

XIV. True and Accurate Sentences (337) 

Give the pupils groups of short sentences to be com- 
bined into one or more long sentences. Encourage 
variety in this combining. Test the accuracy and 
truth of each combination as directed in the pupils' 
book. The following sentences may prove suggestive : 

(1) Lincoln lived in a lowly house. It was a log house. It 
was a little house. It was a log cabin. 

Plainly these four sentences should be combined 
into a single sentence — Lincoln lived in a little lowly 
log cabin. 

Give other similar sentences to be combined. 

(2) What we earn does not make us independent. What we 
save makes us independent. 

From these two sentences we may make one that 
expresses the true thought: Not what we earn, but 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 155 

what we save, makes us independent ; or, What we 
save, not what we earn, makes us independent; or, 
It is not what we earn, but what we save, that makes 
us independent. 

Let the pupils discuss these three different ways of 
expressing the thoughts to determine which is best. 

(3) The house was quiet. I went into my study. The air 
was fresh. My books were at hand. I felt like studying. My 
pencils were all sharpened. Everything seemed easy. Never 
did I accomplish more in an hour's time. 

These sentences offer more difficulty in combining, 
but if the pupils get the main thought that much work 
was accomplished because all the conditions for work 
were just right, they should be able to express the 
thought truly and accurately. 

XV. Pleasing Sentences (339) 

Take time to discuss with the pupils the sentences 
that they make, judging each for its power to please. 

In all written composition work, mark the pleasing 
sentences that you find. Occasionally ask each pupil 
to underline the sentence in his composition that he 
thinks best or most beautiful. 

For supplementary work, ask each pupil to write 
the most beautiful sentence that he can on some sub- 
ject that you assign. The following subjects suggest 
beautiful sentences : 

1. The first snowstorm. 

2. Sunset in the mountains. 



156 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

3. Spring. 

4. Sunrise on the water. 

5. Summer. 

6. White clouds. 

7. A field of wheat. 

8. Sailing boats. 

9. An open fire. 

10. A rose. 

11. The summer camp. 

12. Swaying trees. 

13. A field of wild flowers. 

14. The stars. 

15. The waves on the beach. 

16. The moon. 

17. A baby asleep. 

18. A garden. 

19. A field of new- mown hay. 

20. The flight of birds. 

21. Summer music. 

22. Mother. 

23. Home. 

24. Happiness. 

25. Peace. 

26. Joy. 

27. Strength. 

28. Courage. 

XVI. Sentences to Be Rewritten (341) 

If necessary, give other exercises of the same kind. 
In most classes this will not be necessary, as this lesson 
is the outgrowth or test of several lessons that pre- 
cede it. 



CHAPTER TWELVE 

NARRATION 

I. Meaning of Narration (343) 

Instead of giving formal definitions, let each pupil 
tell something that he has read under each kind of 
narrative, as : 

Biography — The Life of Lincoln. 
Autobiography — Black Beauty. 
History — The Story of the Civil War. 
Anecdote — Lincoln and the Deserter. 

Thus each pupil will show in a practical way that 
he understands the above terms. 

The mere names of the essentials of a good narrative 
should not be learned in a perfunctory manner. Sub- 
sequent lessons will make clear these essentials. 

II. Making a Narrative Clear (344) 

If necessary to supplement this lesson or make a 
more gradual approach to the next, let the pupils 
rewrite a story in which the events are not clearly 
arranged. The following may serve : 

A man bought a new dog. The man now knew that the 
dog was a thief. The dog was a sharpfaced black and tan. 
One day he brought home a pair of silk socks. A former master 

157 



158 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

had taught the dog to steal. The man was surprised to see 
the socks. He thought the dog had found them. They were 
bright green socks. The man never wore such bright socks. 
Next day when the man went for his walk he followed the dog. 
The dog crept into a store. The owner of the store was Peter 
Pinder. This time the dog stole a pair of gloves. His master 
was astonished. He found out how the dog had learned his 
dishonest habits. It took much patience, and some hard disci- 
pline, to teach the poor dog to walk in honor's ways. 

A story like the above, which calls for a rearrange- 
ment of events and the elimination of unnecessary 
facts, will impress upon the pupils the meaning of 
clearness in narration better than any definition or 
rules can do. 

III. Story of a Personal Experience (346) 

Have the pupils consider carefully before deciding 
on a subject. If any pupil finds none in his book that 
appeals to him, let him substitute one that does. 
To speak clearly, one must visualize clearly ; therefore 
the pupil should choose an experience that he has 
clearly in his mind. 

Ask the pupils to take time to recall clearly to their 
own minds the events in their order before relating 
their experience. This will do away with many use- 
less expressions so commonly heard from people giv- 
ing personal experiences, such as, well, however, no, 
that's not what I mean; and the constant repetition of 
and and and then. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 159 

IV. Making a Narrative Forceful (347) 

Read to the pupils the two accounts of the transfer 
of New Orleans from French to American control. 
Your reading should make the pupils feel and see the 
events. It will serve as a model for their telling of a 
forceful anecdote. The telling of such an anecdote not 
only supplements this lesson but prepares for the next. 

V. A Narrative from History (351) 

Pupils' efforts should be criticized by classmates and 
teachers constructively and sympathetically, in the 
light of the principles of narration stated and studied 
in the previous sections of this chapter. 

VI. The Use of Direct Quotations in Narration (353) 

In the same way, select a bit of good narration con- 
taining conversation and let the pupils study it, find- 
ing where and explaining how the direct quotations 
make the narrative more clear or forceful. Short 
selections answer the purpose. Take for example 
such selections as Horatius at the Bridge. Change the 
strong, manly conversation of Horatius and his com- 
panions to indirect quotations. What is the effect? 
Compare : 

(1) "Curse on him !" quoth false Sextus, 
"Will not the villain drown ! 
But for this stay, ere close of day, 
We should have sacked the town." 



160 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

(2) Sextus cursed Horatius for delaying their entry into 
Rome. 

By making pupils feel keenly the contrast between 
the direct and indirect quotation, you establish a 
strong motive for the use of the clear and more forceful 
form of narration. In other words, you incite the 
pupil to do because he sees the need. 

The following selections in the pupils' book are 
suitable for use in bringing out the superiority of direct 
over indirect quotation : 

Lochinvar, poem (p. 6), prose (p. 8) ; The Rescue (p. 13) ; 
Exercise 4, page 326. 

VII. A Narrative with Direct Quotations (356) 

If the last lesson has accomplished its purpose, and 
given the pupils the right motive, this lesson will be 
a success. Consider the result of this lesson, there- 
fore, as a test of your teaching of the preceding lesson. 

VIII. Making the Story Move (358) 

LX. Studying Narratives for Movement (362) 

X. A Narrative with Movement (365) 

The pupils already know what is meant by move- 
ment and can judge this quality in composition (pp. 5- 
13). The lessons in this chapter point out some defi- 
nite things that insure movement. They provide 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 161 

further study in the effects of movement on the under- 
standing and emotions, and thus add a new purpose 
in the study of this important element in effective 
narrative. These lessons afford opportunities for the 
pupils to introduce into their own speech and writing 
the principles explained and illustrated. Lessons 
VIII and IX lead up to Lesson X. 

Let the pupils test their own writing by the simple 
rules given on page 365. Express these rules in short 
questions, as : 

Does this story excite keen interest with the first sentence? 
Have you used short paragraphs? Have you conveyed the 
idea of speed and movement? Does your whole story lead 
to a climax? 

The pupil who learns intelligently to judge a story 
by these simple standards will come not only to write 
better, but to read with more appreciation and under- 
standing. 

XL Holding Interest through Suspense (346) 

Read to the pupils, or have one of the best readers 
in the class read, Mark Twain's story, The Golden Arm. 
In his book, The Sunny Side of the Street, Marshall P. 
Wilder gives some suggestions for the effective telling 
of this story, for holding the interest in suspense till 
the climax. This story is considered one of the best 
of its kind for unexpected and sudden climax. The 
appreciative telling and enjoying of it will do much 
to help the pupils plan their own stories. 



162 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

XII. Narrative with Suspense (367) 

Have the class judge the stories in respect to the 
feeling of suspense produced. This simple statement 
may help them: 

If you know or can easily guess just what is coming, the 
story does not contain the element of suspense. 

XIII. Studying a Narrative Poem (370) 

Let each pupil find a narrative poem and read it 
aloud, keeping in mind while he reads the fact that he 
is reading a story, not mere stanzas or verses. The 
other children should tell whether they were interested 
in the story and whether the reader made them vis- 
ualize the places, people, and events. The poems 
mentioned on page 12 of the pupils' book are good 
narrative poems for such reading and discussion. 

XIV. A Narrative with Sentiment (374) 

Have each pupil judge his own story by answering 
in writing the questions given on page 375. Then 
exchange stories and have each pupil judge a class- 
mate's story by answering the same questions about 
it. If the two judgments — the author's and the 
critic's — differ, let the class discuss the point. Such 
free, social, constructive criticism of all work should 
be used whenever possible. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 163 

XV. Keeping a Journal (375) 

An interested question, or suggestion, or word of 
encouragement from time to time will help the pupil 
to establish the habit of keeping a simple journal. 
Knowing your pupils intimately, as a teacher should, 
makes it possible for you to find individual motives 
that will stimulate the right desire in them. 

XVI. Stories from Suggestive Beginnings (377) 

Have the children try to have their stories "fit in" 
with the introductions, not only in the words and sen- 
tences used, but in the feeling aroused. 

XVII. Writing Myths from Suggestive Outlines (378) 

Read what is written on Myth study in the Aldine 
Second Language Book (pp. 262-264), and in the 
Teachers' Manual that accompanies it (p. 156). 

If possible have a flower present. If not, at least 
show a good picture, that the children may see with 
their own eyes the reason for the flower's name. Un- 
less the pupils see the resemblance between the flower 
and the moccasin, they cannot write a sympathetic 
myth. 

If you cannot procure the moccasin flower, and 
prefer to work with a flower rather than a picture, 
look for resemblances in some other flower that you 
can bring into class, and work from that. These 



1 64 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

resemblances are readily found by the children — the 
tulip resembles a cup ; the buttercup, a fairy cup ; the 
lily-of-the-valley, fairy bells; the lilac cluster, a 
swarm of bees ; the daisy, a star. 



XVIII. Writing Myths from Quotations (381) 

If the pupils will look carefully through nature 
poems, they will find many quotations that suggest 
myths. Such a search is well worth while. It gives 
the pupil a definite aim for his reading, and it develops 
in him the habit of "reading something new out of the 
printed page." 

How many suggestions for myths in this quotation ? 

Who has robbed the ocean cave 
To tinge thy lip with coral hue? 
Who from India's distant wave 
For thee those pearly treasures drew? 
Who from yonder orient sky 
Stole the morning of thine eye? 

J. Shaw. 

How did the maiden get her red lips? From red 
coral. 

How did she get her white teeth? From Indian 
pearls. 

How did she get her blue eyes ? From the morning 
sky. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 165 

In the poem, The Fringed Gentian, by William 
Cullen Bryant, we find the following myth sug- 
gestion : 

How the Gentian Got its Color. 

Why Gentian Comes in the Fall. 

Why the Gentian Is Fringed. 

Why Gentian Doesn't Come with the Violet and 
Columbines. 

XIX. Writing Myths from Titles (383) 

Encourage the pupils to observe nature closely 
for the purpose of making myth subjects. Suggest 
the reading or rereading of Kipling's Just-So Stories, 
and Seton's Wood Myths. 

XX. Fables (384) 

The following notes on Fables are reprinted from 
the Aldine First Language Book (p. 172). 

One thing is true about every fable, and that is 
the lesson it teaches. Fables were not written just 
for the stories they told ; every fable was written 
to teach some lesson or some truth. 

Fables are the oldest stories in the world. Many 
of our best-known fables are called iEsop Fables, 
because they are supposed to have been made by 
^Esop, a slave, who lived in Greece many years 
ago. iEsop did make many fables, but some of 
the so-called iEsop Fables were known long be- 



1 66 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

fore JEsop was born. What iEsop did do was to 
tell these old fables, as well as his own, to the 
people about him. 

A Study of Fables 

The most fundamental thing in the teaching of 
language is not form, but material. The pupil's 
mind must be richly stored, not with material 
that is foreign, that he carries about with him 
undigested as a burden, but with material that 
he has assimilated, that has become a part of 
his very life. The mental life of the child, if it 
is to grow rich and deep, broad and strong, craves 
and must be provided with material of greatest 
variety; it needs the concrete facts of observation; 
it needs the ideas that are born of the comparison 
of facts; it needs equally the fanciful, poetic, mys- 
terious, magic, wonderful ideas that feed the im- 
agination ; it needs no less the varied stimuli that 
exercise and develop the feelings, the emotions, 
and the will. 

Fables, the earliest form of literature originating 
in the childhood of the race, never fail to interest 
the children of all races and of every succeeding 
generation. Some of their most obvious character- 
istics which make them universally interesting are 
these: they are concrete; they are brief; they are 
easily and fully comprehensible; they are pointed; 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 



167 



they deal with those elementary, universal notions 
and feelings of right and wrong, of justice, of sim- 
ple wisdom and shrewdness, on which our civilized 
life has been built up; they teach an easily under- 
stood lesson with almost the force and conviction 
of a personal experience. On account of these 
characteristics, which are within the ready recogni- 
tion of the eight- or nine-year-old child, and on ac- 
count of the interest which they invariably arouse, 
fables form the best avenue of approach to the prac- 
tical understanding of the production of real litera- 
ture ; they afford the best early lessons for the child 
— as they have already done for the race — in pro- 
ducing real literature. With such initiation into 
the simple secrets of the construction of fables as 
the first and succeeding lessons of this chapter in 
the pupils' book give, children readily become eager 
to try their hands at the writing of fables. And 
when they really succeed, as almost all children can, 
in writing very creditable fables, oftentimes fables 
that will bear favorable comparison with the classic 
ones of the books, it is an invaluable experience for 
them, a wonderful achievement in the process of 
learning really to use ideas and language in the crea- 
tion of literature. They begin to see what real use 
they can make of language. They are invariably 
enthusiastic in the use of their newborn power — they 
want to write fables and still more fables, to make 
whole books of fables. 



1 68 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

This is the teacher's opportunity not merely to 
train the pupil in the effective expression of his own 
ideas, but equally in the use of correct form. How? 
Very easily. First of all, enter heartily into the 
enthusiasm of your pupils. They want to write 
fables; you must want them to write fables. They 
want to make books of fables — class books, group 
books, individual books; you want them to make 
such books. They want to write fables as good as, 
or better than, the printed fables in their books ; you 
want them to write such superior fables. And all 
that you have to do is to help them and guide them 
sympathetically, appreciatively, in their efforts. It 
will not now be necessary to beat into them with 
endless repetitions a few correct language forms 
and a few words for the enrichment of their vocab- 
ularies ; they are in a position to appreciate the value 
of correct forms and of appropriate words ; they want 
to know what such forms and words are because they 
want to use them; they want them for what they 
really are — they want them as means to an end 
in which they are interested. A single use of a lan- 
guage form or of a new word under such conditions is 
more effective than scores of formal, uninteresting 
repetitions. Similarly, information that the pupil 
needs to use — and no little information is necessary 
to the writing of good fables — is grasped and assim- 
ilated through use most effectively. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 169 

XXI. Proverbs Growing Out of Fables (367) 

Have each child read a fable not mentioned in his 
book and write an original proverb from it. 

XXII. Writing a Fable from a Proverb (368) 

Do not be satisfied with the writing of one fable. 
One simply arouses the interest. After writing several, 
the pupils themselves are always surprised at the ease 
with which the thoughts come and take shape in 
words. Some pupils — yes, and teachers — have be- 
come so interested that they have written books of 
fables and myths. 

XXIII. Writing Fables to Fit Proverbs (371) 

The proverb really serves as the gist of the story. 
After studying a few as suggested in the pupils' book, 
the pupils will have no trouble in expanding a proverb 
into a fable. 

XXIV. Writing Stories of the Origin of Fables (372) 

(a) Study with the pupils the type story given in 
this lesson. Have them apply to it all their tests for 
a good story. Is it clear? Is it forceful? Does it 
arouse interest at the beginning and sustain it to the 
end ? Have direct quotations been used to help make 
the narrative clear and forcible? Is there movement 
in the story ? Is there any feeling of suspense ? 



170 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

(b) When they write their stories, have the pupils 
try to apply all that they know that helps to make a 
good story. After they have finished let them apply 
the tests as they did to the type story. 

The writing of this story is the culmination and test 
of the work of the whole chapter on narration. Let 
the pupils consider it in this light. 

It will add much to the interest of this work if selec- 
tions are made of the best myths and fables to be bound 
together in class-books. It may be possible to have 
some of these printed. 



CHAPTER THIRTEEN 

HOW TO MAKE SENTENCES FORCEFUL 

I. Force through Added Details (395) 

Have the pupils find in their books, either in school 
or at home, examples of sentences that have been 
made forceful by adding detail. 

II. Force through Climax (396) 

Have the pupils look through some orations and 
find sentences that have been made forceful by lead- 
ing to a climax. 

Set each pupil to write one good sentence to illus- 
trate this point. This is a task worthy of serious 
and intelligent thought. The pupils who succeed 
should be made to feel that they have done something 
well worth while. 

III. Force through Repetition of Words (397) 

Before having the pupils write, let them consider 
what would naturally be repeated for each topic. The 
following arrangement of topics and words, written 
on the board, is suggestive : 



172 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

i. The Flight of a Bird. 

up, higher, on, down, lighter. 
2. The Destruction of an Airplane. 

shot, down, over and over, attacked. 

After the topics have been thus placed on the board 
each pupil may select the word that seems most sug- 
gestive to him and write his sentence or sentences, as : 

i. Lighter than air, lighter than thistledown, lighter than 
dreams he skimmed the blue. 

2. Attacked by the enemy plane above, attacked by the 
guns from the shore batteries, attacked on all sides by small 
flyers, the airplane fell to the ground — a complete wreck. 

IV. Force through Easy Questions (398) 

V. Force through Exclamations (400) 

Have the pupils find examples in their reading and 
history texts. 

VI. Force through Brevity (401) 

Let the pupils make sentences to illustrate. A 
study of proverbs will help them. 

VII. Force through Contrast (402) 

Have the pupils read the sentences given in their 
book and any others they find, showing by their voices 
the force of contrast. 

Let them turn to the list of synonyms and antonyms 
(pp. 194-205) and from this select words with which 
to make forcible contrasting sentences. 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 173 

VIII. Studying Sentences for Force (404) 

This exercise is the test for the whole chapter. Let 
the children study the sentences and the directions 
given and write their answers. Whenever a differ- 
ence in judgment arises, have a free discussion by the 
children, reserving your own decision until the last. 



CHAPTER FOURTEEN 
EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT 
I. Meaning of Exposition (406) 

In discussing this section with the class, get pupils 
to give a variety of examples of their use of Exposi- 
tion, so that the term and its meaning may be entirely 
clear to them, so that Exposition will not appear to 
them like something new, to be learned with difficulty. 
Let them realize that they are using the form of com- 
position called Exposition constantly, and all that 
they have to learn — which of course they want to 
learn — is how to use it more effectively. 

Ask each pupil to look out for and note at least one 
example of exposition that he, himself, hears during 
the day. This example may be taken from the work 
in the schoolroom, or it may be something heard at 
home, or on the playground, or on the street, or in a 
car or train, or from the lecture platform or the pulpit. 

II. Studying an Exposition (407) 

The study of the selection given in the pupils' 
book brings out the main essential in all exposition 
— It must be clear. If the exposition gives directions, 
they must be so clear that the reader or hearer can 
follow them. If it portrays pictures or scenes, these 

171 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 175 

must be so clearly explained that the reader or hearer 
can visualize them. 

But the effectiveness of an exposition depends as 
much upon the hearer or reader as upon the author. 
The clearest exposition seems cloudy to the one who 
does not interpret it thoughtfully and fully. Clear 
thinking is the prime requisite both for giving and 
interpreting a good piece of exposition. Practice in 
the one gives power in the other. 

Give pupils some such exercises as the following for 
practice and test : 

(a) Take the fourth book from the left on the top 
shelf in the book case ; carry it to your desk ; open it 
at page 34 ; read aloud the third sentence on that page. 

Such a test will help to impress the importance of 
definite, clear directions and of their accurate inter- 
pretations. 

(b) Have pupils direct others how to go to different 
places — to the principal's office, the book room, the 
post office, city hall, etc. The hearers will follow the 
directions and tell whether they are clear and adequate. 

(c) Read to the pupils such a selection as the fol- 
lowing : 

Build me a house, good master builder. Let it be long and 
low, with a wide, hospitable door in the middle. Make the 
walk that leads to it straight, that none may lose the way who 
seek my hearth. On either side of the walk plant a border of 
pansies, that their bright faces may smile a welcome to all 
comers. Over the door build an arbor, and plant fragrant roses 



176 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

over it, and place a bench beneath it, where the wayfarer may 
rest. 

After hearing these directions to the master builder, 
have the pupils sketch roughly, or indicate by writing 
the words, the location of house, door, walk, pansy- 
borders, arbor, bench. 

(d) Let some pupils tell how to lay out a garden, an 
orchard, a baseball field, the ground floor of a house 
or a model playground, and have other pupils sketch 
plans. 

III. Oral Expositions (408) 

Whenever possible have the class test the clearness 
of any exposition by trying to carry it out in action. 

Before a pupil tries to give his oral exposition, he 
should make a short outline. This will help him get 
it into clear shape for the oral attempt. Example : 
How to cross a busy street. 

1. Pause on the curb. 

2. Look to the left. 

3. Walk to the middle of the street. 

4. Pause a second. 

5. Look to the right. 

6. Walk to the pavement. 

Several exercises may be profitably devoted to these 
oral expositions. Each pupil's effort should be judged 
by the others for its clearness and definiteness. In 
passing such judgment, it is not enough to say merely 
"clear" or " definite" or "lacking in clearness or 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 177 

definiteness." The critic should point out wherein 
the exposition excels or falls short in these respects; 
and in the latter case, the critic should suggest definite 
improvements or, better still, give the exposition as he 
thinks it should be given. 

IV. Written Expositions (409) 

If the work in the three preceding lessons has been 
clearly understood and followed, the pupils should have 
no difficulty in writing clear, simple expositions. 

Consider this lesson a test of the clearness of your 
own exposition in earlier lessons. 

V. Oral Exposition from Given Introductions (411) 

The introductions given not only serve as an impetus 
to thought and easy "follow-up" writing; they are 
the topic sentences for the compositions. Review 
with the pupils Lesson XI, page 60. They are now 
able to appreciate fully the clearness of the topic devel- 
opment. In like manner, before giving their oral 
exposition, let them think out the development of 
their topic sentence and make a short outline as a 
guide for their talk. 

After a pupil has finished his oral exposition, have 
his classmates tell: (1) if he has made it clear; (2) if 
his facts are correct ; (3) if he has given the essential 
facts ; (4) if there are other facts more important that 
might be given. 



178 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

VI. Written Exposition from Given Introductions (412) 

The purpose of all these exercises in exposition is 
to help the pupils to think clearly and to express 
their thought clearly. The clear thinking must come 
first. To make sure that the pupils are thinking 
clearly, take one lesson period to study the outlines for 
the development of their themes. Get every child 
to become an active, constructive critic of these out- 
lines. In this way you insure the success of the final 
written expositions. 

VII. Meaning of Argumentation (413) 

In discussing this section, get pupils to give examples 
of arguments that they actually use, in order to make 
the subject appear as familiar to them as it really is. 

Take for example the last paragraph in the lesson 
and have each pupil give the arguments or reasons he 
would present to his mother in trying to persuade her 
to allow him to go fishing. Let them also tell what 
reasons they would give their parents to influence 
them to grant permission for a camping trip, the pur- 
chase of a motorcycle, buying a new suit of clothes, 
taking a high school or college course, going to a trade 
or commercial school, or for any special thing they 
may want. 

VIII. Arguments Suggested by a Story (415) 

Before having the "case" argued, choose or have 
the class choose the pupil who is to represent the 



ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 179 

cobbler, the one who is to represent the doctor, and 
the one who is to represent the judge. Let each of 
the principals choose three or five advisors. Each of 
these groups should have a meeting in which all 
contribute their best reasons or arguments that will 
be used at the trial. Perhaps each principal may 
provide himself with a few notes to recall the sugges- 
tions of his advisors. By preparing the exercise in 
this way, greater interest is aroused in the preparatory 
work and the arguments will be more pointed and 
effective. The whole trial will be more interesting 
to the listeners. 

IX. Oral Arguments (417) 

Many exercises may profitably be devoted to de- 
bates, using subjects here given or others that may 
be more interesting or timely, which pupils will pro- 
pose. In connection with these debates, pupils should 
learn something of parliamentary procedure. Let 
them choose their officers — president and secretary 
only are required — and learn to conduct these exer- 
cises according to parliamentary rules. They should 
know that those taking part in a debate are arranged 
on opposite sides, the affirmative and the negative, 
usually an equal number — seldom more than three 
— on each side. Roberts' Rules of Order will furnish 
all necessary information concerning parliamentary 
procedure. 



180 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

X. Written Arguments (418) 

After the pupils have finished writing, have some of 
the arguments read aloud. The class will act as 
judges and decide these three points : (1) Are the 
explanations clear? (2) Are the reasons sound? 
(3) Are they convincing? 

XI. Making Original Addresses (419) 

This exercise should be continued for several days. 
Let it be conducted by the class organization with 
its officers as suggested in Lesson IX. Have five or 
six speakers each day, the speakers to be notified a 
day or two in advance that they may make full prep- 
aration. The pupils not reciting should take active 
part as constructive critics and judges. They must 
be made to feel that they are on trial for the correct- 
ness of their judgment and the soundness of their 
criticism, just as much as are the speakers. 

Although the list of subjects given is large and 
covers a wide range, pupils should be encouraged to 
speak on suitable subjects of their own choosing. 



CHAPTER FIFTEEN 

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR PUNCTUATION AND 
CAPITALS 

This chapter brings together the rules for the use 
of capitals and punctuation marks, some of which 
the pupils began to learn in the lowest grades. The 
summary here given is intended for: (i) instruction 
from time to time throughout the seventh and eighth 
grades, as need may arise ; (2) review at the end of 
the course ; and (3) reference. The method of presen- 
tation brings into prominence the reasons for the rules, 
emphasizing the cardinal fact that capitals and punc- 
tuation marks are useful signs to the eye, their sole 
purpose being to make written language easier to 
understand. 

The teaching of tnese principles and rules should 
not be postponed until the end of the course; that 
would be as serious an error as to try to teach them all 
together at the beginning. Capitals and punctuation 
marks are integral parts of good usage in written 
language ; and teaching pupils to use them correctly, 
as one means toward clearness, is a necessary part 
of language instruction throughout the entire course. 
It should proceed as fast as pupils become mature 
enough to understand and apply it; it should keep 



1 82 ALDINE LANGUAGE METHOD 

pace with their development in writing; one rule at 
a time — from the beginning of the course to the end 
— until all the rules are familiar to them and habitually 
followed in their writing. 

The exercises under each rule are intended only as 
illustrations. The pupils' own writing furnishes the 
best material for practical exercises in punctuation 
and the use of capitals. Do not be content with 
merely pointing out mistakes and having them cor- 
rected. Require the pupil to explain the error and 
state the reason for the correction. This is the surest 
way to develop intelligent care and self-criticism, which 
in time- lead to correct habit. 

Use as occasion arises — repeatedly, if need be — 
those sections which the writing of your pupils shows 
they do not know or at least do not apply. Pay no 
attention to those rules which they already know and 
observe. 

Special drill on punctuation may take a number of 
forms. For example, the pupils may be called on to 
explain the punctuation in selections from books or 
magazines. They may be given papers containing 
sentences wrongly punctuated — or better, not punctu- 
ated at all, — and called on to give the correct punctua- 
tion, with reasons. They may be asked to write 
sentences of a type that will illustrate the point under 
consideration. 



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